*2.1. Study Area*

The study area lies between 68◦04 00~104◦40 00 E and 27◦25 30~40◦08 00 N (Figure 2), which extends from the southern margin of the Himalaya to the northern margin of the Kunlun and Qilian Mountains, and the Pamirs Plateau and Karakorum Mountains in the west to the Hengduan Mountains in the east [55]. This area has the highest elevation (more than 4000 m above sea level) and diverse topography, which support a variety of vegetation types at different elevations. From low to high elevations, these vegetation types include dry and hot river valley scrubs, broadleaved forests, mixed coniferous broadleaved forests, coniferous forests, shrubs, meadows, cold subnival belts, and nival belts (glaciers). This region harbors the world's most species-rich temperate alpine flora driven by orogenetic movements and climate change (monsoon intensification) [56]. It is currently home to approximately 12,000 species of vascular plants belonging to 1500 genera, of which more than 20% are endemic [57]. The mountain region is a diversity center for many species-rich genera, such as rhododendron, gentiana, saussurea, and pedicularis, all of which contain numerous endemic species [14]. We divided the entire study area into five subregions based on the boundaries of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, Hengduan Mountains, and Hindu-Kush Himalaya: plateau platform, Hengduan Mountains, eastern Himalaya, central Himalaya, and western Himalaya (Figure 2) [10,11,55]. Of these, the alpine plant biota in Hengduan Mountains is the richest [56].

**Figure 2.** The presence points of *Meconopsis* species in the study area.
