**3. Conclusions**

Mustard seeds are widely used in foods due to its sensory attributes, nutritional values, and its numerous functional properties. The intake of mustard products and foods formulated with mustard is expected to rise in future and may contribute considerably to the exposure to several biologically active compounds that were objects of this work. Mustard products and their seeds are consumed in very small quantities primarily explainable by the characteristic hot and pungent flavour. Adverse effects of bioactive compounds such as erucic acid or glucosinolates breakdown products have been mainly observed in in vitro or in vivo animal studies rather than in humans and especially when the compounds were administered in concentrated or isolated form, and given in high doses. When consumed in average amounts typically found in a normal diet, it can be expected, that the intake of mustard seeds or products made thereof do not pose a direct health risk, except for consumers allergic to mustard proteins. However, it cannot be excluded that high intake levels of mustard seeds or products made thereof, such as mustard seed oil, cause health problems. Nowadays, research is basically focusing on the potential beneficial effects of the multifunctional mustard plant and its ingredients, however reliable data on potentially toxic compounds and possible health risks should likewise be considered.

**Funding:** This research received no external funding.

**Institutional Review Board Statement:** Not applicable.

**Informed Consent Statement:** Not applicable.

**Data Availability Statement:** Not applicable.

**Acknowledgments:** The author expresses profound thanks to Bernd Schäfer and Andreas Eisenreich (German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Department of Food Safety) for their constructive comments and support in the preparation of this manuscript.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The author declares no conflict of interest.
