**5. Effects of SCFAs in CKD**

CKD is linked to inflammation, oxidative stress, and dysbiosis of the immune system. These factors contribute to the progressive deterioration of renal function, loss of blood pressure control, metabolic dysfunction, and a loss of functional integrity of the intestinal epithelial barrier. Furthermore, the perpetuation of systemic inflammation and oxidative stress, together with the accumulation of toxic metabolites, are responsible for the onset of all comorbidities associated with CKD, such as changes in the cardiovascular, pulmonary, ocular, central nervous, musculoskeletal, gastrointestinal, mitochondrial, and immune systems [73,137–142]. However, in recent years, the gut microbiota has been assumed to play a central role in renal disease through the production of SCFAs, which have been shown to ameliorate renal damage by modulating inflammatory and immune responses [140–142]. Numerous studies, both pre-clinical and clinical, have already demonstrated the potential beneficial effect that SCFAs could have in the course of CKD, even improving some of the secondary complications that occur.
