*3.3. Spatial Agglomeration Relationship of LUCs Zones*

The spatial agglomeration relationships of LUCs zones were analyzed by using the methods of cold- and hot-spot analysis [49–51]. The location of high value and low value of LUCs clustering was obtained by cold- and hot-spot analysis. The results showed that the hot and cold spots of LUCs in the UCC showed an agglomerate spatial distribution pattern. The distribution pattern of hot spots, between 2000 and 2010, was mainly concentrated in Yuzhong and Dadukou, eastern Jiulongpo, southeastern Shapingba, southern Yubei, western Jiangbei, and eastern Banan. By 2020, it especially gathered at the intersection between Yubei and Beibei and the east part of Banan. Complex social and economic activities and convenient transportation facilities diversified the land-use function in these areas. This may be the main reason for the high-value aggregation of LUCs. The confrontation between various land-use functions was particularly fierce, and the conflicts became more and more frequent from 2000 to 2020. The cold spots represent stable and controllable. From the distribution pattern, they were mainly distributed in the boundary edge areas of the urban areas of Chongqing in the past 20 years, such as the south of Banan and the northeast of Yubei. These areas have higher elevations, and the land-use type is dominated by forests. Typical hilly and mountain cover characteristics and the remote geographical location may be the main reasons for the low-value aggregation of LUCs (Figure 7).

#### *3.4. Potential Risk of LUCs*

The potential land-use conflicts risk index (PLUCRI) was accessed by using the method of neighborhood analysis [23]. The results showed that the entire area faced the risk of the LUCs, but not seriously. In Figure 8, the areas of the low and general potential conflict area decreased in the last 20 years, while the areas of high and extreme potential conflict increased and concentrated in the north of the study area, especially in the north of Yubei District and Beibei District, and the junction of Shapingba District and Beibei District. The zones of low potential conflict, general potential conflict, high potential conflict, and extreme potential conflict account for 43.43%, 32.27%, 17.37%, and 6.93% in 2000, and 41.5%, 33.2%, 16.22%, and 9.08% in 2020. The cold- and hot-spot analysis of the PLUCRI showed that the hot spots of PLUCRI were also concentrated in the north of Yubei District and the junction of Shapingba District and Beibei District in Figure 9. These areas are not only land-use out-of-control areas, but also areas with the higher potential risk of LUCs, indicating that strict spatial boundary control measures need to be implemented in these areas as soon as possible. Therefore, the future regional land use needs to strictly implement

the border control of spatial planning to reduce the influence of neighborhood units so that the intensification of conflict will not arise [47]. Typical hilly and mountain cover characteristics and the remote geographical location may be the main reasons for the low–value aggregation of LUCs (Figure 7).

The spatial agglomeration relationships of LUCs zones were analyzed by using the methods of cold– and hot–spot analysis [49–51].The location of high value and low value of LUCs clustering was obtained by cold– and hot–spot analysis. The results showed that the hot and cold spots of LUCs in the UCC showed an agglomerate spatial distribution pattern. The distribution pattern of hot spots, between 2000 and 2010, was mainly concentrated in Yuzhong and Dadukou, eastern Jiulongpo, southeastern Shapingba, southern Yubei, western Jiangbei, and eastern Banan. By 2020, it especially gathered at the intersection between Yubei and Beibei and the east part of Banan. Complex social and economic activities and convenient transportation facilities diversified the land-use function in these areas. This may be the main reason for the high–value aggregation of LUCs. The confrontation between various land–use functions was particularly fierce, and the conflicts became more and more frequent from 2000 to 2020. The cold spots represent stable and controllable. From the distribution pattern, they were mainly distributed in the boundary edge areas of the urban areas of Chongqing in the past 20 years, such as the south of Banan and the northeast of Yubei. These areas have higher elevations, and the land–use type is dominated by forests.

**Figure 7.** The cold– and hot–spot analysis of LUCs in the study area**. Figure 7.** The cold- and hot-spot analysis of LUCs in the study area. influence of neighborhood units so that the intensification of conflict will not arise [**Error! Reference source not found.**]. influence of neighborhood units so that the intensification of conflict will not arise [**Error!** 

**Reference source not found.**].

*Land* **2022**, *11*, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 19

*3.3. Spatial Agglomeration Relationship of LUCs Zones*

**Figure 8.** The potential risk of LUCs in the study area**. Figure 8.** The potential risk of LUCs in the study area. **Figure 8.** The potential risk of LUCs in the study area**.**

land resource scarcity, and diversity of human needs are the fundamental causes of LUCs in the process of rapid urbanization. Rapid urbanization and unreasonable land use will also lead to the complexity and fragmentation of the spatial landscape and damage the stability of the system. Therefore, we believe that LUCs are highly correlated with LER. Based on this, we constructed a conceptual framework for LUCs assessment. Second, the LUCs evaluation framework we constructed can identify the intensity of LUCs at grid scale and regional scale. We find that the conflict zones are gathered in concentrated areas

Compared with previous studies, our paper has the following advantages. First, the

land resource scarcity, and diversity of human needs are the fundamental causes of LUCs in the process of rapid urbanization. Rapid urbanization and unreasonable land use will also lead to the complexity and fragmentation of the spatial landscape and damage the stability of the system. Therefore, we believe that LUCs are highly correlated with LER. Based on this, we constructed a conceptual framework for LUCs assessment. Second, the LUCs evaluation framework we constructed can identify the intensity of LUCs at grid scale and regional scale. We find that the conflict zones are gathered in concentrated areas of social and economic activities, which is consistent with the previous findings [29]. This

**Figure 9.** The cold– and hot– spot analysis of PLUCRI in the study area**. Figure 9.** The cold– and hot– spot analysis of PLUCRI in the study area**.** of social and economic activities, which is consistent with the previous findings [29]. This **Figure 9.** The cold- and hot-spot analysis of PLUCRI in the study area.

*4.1. Contributions and Limitations*

**4. Discussion**

*4.1. Contributions and Limitations*

**4. Discussion**

#### **4. Discussion**

#### *4.1. Contributions and Limitations*

Compared with previous studies, our paper has the following advantages. First, the theoretical basis is sufficient. In our study, we found that the multifunctional land use, land resource scarcity, and diversity of human needs are the fundamental causes of LUCs in the process of rapid urbanization. Rapid urbanization and unreasonable land use will also lead to the complexity and fragmentation of the spatial landscape and damage the stability of the system. Therefore, we believe that LUCs are highly correlated with LER. Based on this, we constructed a conceptual framework for LUCs assessment. Second, the LUCs evaluation framework we constructed can identify the intensity of LUCs at grid scale and regional scale. We find that the conflict zones are gathered in concentrated areas of social and economic activities, which is consistent with the previous findings [29]. This provides more accurate location information for land-use decisions and land management. Third, the identification of potential hotbeds of LUCs is easily overlooked in previous studies. In our study, we try to use domain analysis method to explore the potential LUCs areas. We find that the rural-urban border areas are particularly vulnerable to the potential risk of LUCs, because of high population movements and lack of government supervision. This is an interesting finding and is different from previous studies [47].

In this paper, the complexity, fragility, and stability of spatial patterns were taken as the basis for calculating conflict. However, it should be pointed out that methods and ideas of this study need to be improved:

(1) The method of LUCs we used was based on the LER assessment, so that the factor chosen in the calculation of conflict relied too much on the present situation of land-use function. However, the manifestation, formation mechanism, and influencing factors of spatial conflict are highly complex, involving resources, environment, society, and economy.

(2) The LUCs in our study are caused by the disorderly spatial pattern of PLES, which only reflects the incoordination of the land-use structure, but as per the discussions in the literature [52–57], the types of LUCs are various, such as regional conflicts, socioenvironmental conflicts, structure and function conflicts of an urban system, land system conflicts, and cultural conflicts. We will explore these types in the future.

(3) Our research carried the foundation analysis of the evolution and the potential risk of LUCs in the UCC from the view of the PLES. We did not simulate and predict the future development trend of land-use conflicts in the study area, so it is difficult to analyze and solve the conflict problem comprehensively. Therefore, this will be our future direction for further research.

#### *4.2. Policy Recommendations of LUCs Optimization*

The LUCs reflect the competition of stakeholders for scarce land resources and the land-use contradiction produced for the realization of their respective interests [58]. The ultimate goal of land-use conflict research is for contradiction reconciliation and relieving man-land relations. These are intended to develop reasonable reconciliation programs to promote sustainable development in the study area [59]. The key is to identify the distribution, manifestation, and degrees of conflicts, and take them as a basis to set up targeted governance strategies. In our paper, we hope to have provided targeted management strategies for different LUCs zones by combining different governance strategies for LUCs at international and national levels, to promote the harmonious development of regional man-land relations. In particular:

(1) In the stable controllable zone

The stable controllable zone in the UCC is mainly concentrated on the edge of Chongqing, where the economy is relatively backward, and the land-use type is dominated by forest. The degree and potential risk of LUCs are weak. These areas should be designated as ecological nature reserves, and production and construction activities should be strictly prohibited. The government should increase ecological subsidies and encourage inefficient farmland to restore forest in these areas. Thus, the self-evolution and regulatory

function of regional ecosystem can be enhanced. In addition, the rural residential land in these areas should be gradually moved out according to the policy of increasing and decreasing balance, so as to reduce the interference of human activities to the environment.

(2) In the basic controllable zone

The area of basic controllable zone was reduced heavily by 18.48% in the last 20 years due to the decrease in PES and the increase in LPS. This zone is located in the transition area between human production–life and ecological protection, and does not pose a threat to the regional sustainable land use, but has the potential risk and possibility of LUCs. Therefore, in these regions, the government should adopt a slightly stronger management strategy and more diversified management means. On the premise of not destroying the regional natural ecosystem and farmland ecosystem, land should be properly utilized under the support and drive of policies to maximize the function of land. For example, the government can increase agricultural input, promote the planting and reprocessing of ecological agricultural products, and improve the development level of the primary industry. In addition, the government can also plan and build nature protection resorts to stimulate the living and production functions of land, and develop the tertiary industry while protecting the regional ecological environment.

(3) Basic out-of-control zone

The area of the basic out-of-control zone increased by nearly 13% from 2000 to 2020, occupying almost 47% of the study area in 2020. It posed a serious threat to the ecological environment of Chongqing. This zone was mainly distributed in the core and the peripheral regions of urban economic development, which were human production and living intensive activity areas. The LUCs between production, living, and ecological were very intense and basic out-of-control, and were the focus of governance areas. The government must take into account the fact that Chongqing is an ecologically fragile area. It is urgent to give priority to its ecological protection function and formulate a strong ecological protection policy. Therefore, the basic farmland protection line, ecological protection line, and urban expansion boundary line should be delimited from the macro level. The city scale should be reasonably controlled, and the construction land extraction mechanism should be formulated. There is also a need to strengthen the construction of ecological civilization in this area and enhance the awareness of ecological culture of local people to avoid further deterioration of the ecological environment and to prevent the reform area from further evolving into a serious out of control area.

(4) Serious out-of-control zone

The proportion of this region in 2020 is 8.54%, a 6.27% increase from 2000. Compared with the basic out-of-control zone, the LUCs in this zone reached a stage that is challenging to recover from human intervention. This is a very dangerous area that is constantly threatening the ecological stability and balance of the whole region. In these regions, the production, living, and ecological functions of land have been extensively developed and utilized, resulting in particularly intense land-use conflicts. In the process of governance, the definition of the status of PLES function is followed, in which the production function is the basis, the living function is the purpose, and the ecological function is the guarantee [46]. The strictest control policies and the most powerful protective measures must be adopted to reshape the regional ecological protection barrier and curb its impact on the surrounding land. Occupation and destruction of the ecological environment and illegal occupation of basic farmland are strictly prohibited. No new construction land is allowed within the ecological protection red line. On the premise of ensuring ecological security, the government will rationally arrange ecological communities and green enterprises according to the territorial space planning.

#### **5. Conclusions**

This paper selected the UCC as a new study area from the view of the PLES, based on the leading function of land use and the situation of the study area. The PLESs were divided into four types: EPS, PES, LPS, and ES. Based on the LER assessment method, we established the LUCs model to analyze the spatial relationship and potential risk of LUCs in the past 20 years. The LUCs in the study area were divided into four degrees: stable controllable, basic controllable, basic out-of-control, and serious out-of-control. The conclusions are as follows:

(1) The land-use types in the UCC were divided into four spatial types. From 2000 to 2020, the PES was in the dominant position in the study area, followed by EPS, LPS, and ES. The rate and transfer intensity of LPS was highest among the spaces. It showed that during the process of rapid urbanization, the LPS mainly eroded the PES and EPS.

(2) The average conflict level of the UCC increased over the past 20 years. It poses a serious threat to the ecological environment of Chongqing. In the process of rapid urbanization, the area of basic and serious out-of-control zones increased and occupied almost 56%, while the area of stable and basic controllable decreased. The mutual occupation between the production, living, and ecological land made the LUCs and the man-land relations become increasingly tense.

(3) LUCs typically occur in specific areas. The population agglomeration and regional economic development positioning will cause conflicts to become out of control. The out-ofcontrol conflict zones are gathered in concentrated areas of social and economic activities, due to the complex social and economic activities and convenient transportation facilities. The controllable conflict zones were gathered in high-altitude forest areas. These areas were typically hilly and mountains with remote geographical location, and the economy was relatively backward.

(4) The UCC faced the potential risk of the LUCs, but not seriously. The zones of low potential conflict, general potential conflict, high potential conflict, and extreme potential conflict account for 43.43%, 32.27%, 17.37%, and 6.93% in 2000, and 41.5%, 33.2%, 16.22%, and 9.08% in 2020. The areas of high and extreme potential conflicts were increased. The hot spots for LUCs' potential distribution were concentrated in the western and northern areas of the study area, especially in the north of Yubei District and the junction of Shapingba District and Beibei District.

**Author Contributions:** The co-authors together contributed to the completion of this article. Specifically, their individual contributions are as follows: conceptualization, T.L. and P.D.; software, P.D., Y.S. and F.Y.; methodology, T.L., P.D. and Y.S.; validation, T.L. and F.Y.; formal analysis, T.L. and P.D.; resources, T.L.; data curation, P.D. and Y.S.; writing—original draft preparation, T.L., P.D. and Y.S.; writing—review and editing, T.L., F.Y., Y.L. and Y.W.; visualization, T.L., F.Y. and P.D.; supervision, T.L., F.Y., Y.L. and C.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This research was funded by the Key Program of the National Social Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 20&ZD095), the Science and Technology Research project of Chongqing Education Commission (Grant No. KJQN202102103), the Humanities and Social Sciences Research Project of Chongqing Education Commission (Grant No. 21SKGH308), the Chongqing Social Science Planning Social Organization Project (Grant No. 2021SZ26), and the National Social Science Youth Foundation of China (Grant No. 18CJL031).

**Institutional Review Board Statement:** Not applicable.

**Informed Consent Statement:** Not applicable.

**Data Availability Statement:** The data presented in this study are available on request from the author.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.

#### **References**

