*2.1. Chemical Treatments*

Chemical decontamination is used in many industries [26]. It can be used for the destruction of mycotoxins or their neutralization [39]. Many chemical agents are used for the decontamination of solid foods and feed, such as limewater [40], organic acids [41], ozone [42], and ammonia [43]. All these treatments are discussed below in this section (Table 1).











**Table1.**

*Foods* **2022**, *11*, 3304


*Foods* **2022**, *11*, 3304


beef, pork, and fish along with minor alterations in

odor and taste.

**Table 1.** *Cont.*

#### 2.1.1. Nixtamalization

Nixtamalization is a traditional process used for maize. It is a chemical treatment based on the alkaline hydrolysis of aflatoxins by the addition of lime and subsequent cooking for a predefined time. This process causes the opening of the lactone ring of aflatoxins leading to their inactivation by the high pH medium and heating process. The efficiency of this process is related to many factors, such as the quantity of the lime used, the temperature of the process, and the contact time between the solution and the grains [60]. The disadvantage of the traditional nixtamalization process (TNP) is the generation of a large quantity of wastewater and a large amount of nejayote (water containing solid fractions of maize tip cap, pericarp, germ, and aflatoxins). Nejayote imposes a safety problem because it is reused in some regions as animal feed, for another nixtamalization process, or to water plants [51].

Inconsistent results have been shown concerning the use of the traditional nixtamalization process to reduce aflatoxins in corn. High reduction rates of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and aflatoxicol of 96% and 70%, respectively, were achieved by Anguiano–Ruvalcaba et al., supporting the use of TNP to mitigate aflatoxins in corn [61]. Another study was conducted in the Huasteca Potosina region in the central part of Mexico to measure the efficiency of TNP and showed that this process is not efficient enough to mitigate the aflatoxins in maize grains [51].

To determine the optimal pH for the alkaline treatment of maize dough used for tortilla production, an alkaline treatment at pH 10.2 was appropriate to achieve the total elimination of aflatoxin AFB1 with a resting time of 30–40 min at room temperature. [52].

The cooking ingredients used to perform the nixtamalization may have a critical role in mitigating aflatoxins and decreasing the detrimental effect on food and feed quality, as well as the environment [53]. A study was conducted on maize, and two cooking solutions were used (1% slaked lime or 1% traditional liquid ash). Their efficiencies were similar, and the reduction rates of 90% and 80% of aflatoxins and fumonisins, respectively, were achieved by soaking the maize grains. The flours prepared from the treated grains showed a decreased peak viscosity, as compared with the non-nixtamalized maize flours, associated with a slight reduction in the fat, sugar, protein, and dietary fiber contents. The ash and the niacin content were increased, and the acceptability of the products produced using the treated grains by consumers was high, making this method a cost-effective alternative to fumonisins and aflatoxins detoxification of maize [50].

Another study showed that calcium hydroxide is consistently used for cooking maize grains and for producing nixtamal, but this causes environmental pollution issues due to the high pH of the wastewater and the byproducts ensuing from this process. Alternatively, the authors proposed the use of different cooking solutions, such as sodium and potassium hydroxides, that can be used as an alternative to calcium hydroxide after showing their effective reducing effect on fusarium mycotoxins [53].
