*2.2. Output Characteristics of Photovoltaic Array under Partial Shading Conditions*

Under PSCs, when the incident irradiance on the PV panels decreases, the shaded areas experience heating, leading to the hot spot effect, which can potentially cause damage to the entire panel. To address these issues, bypass diodes are usually connected in parallel with PV cells to prevent temperature rise caused by the hot spot effect. Furthermore, the multi-peak characteristics arising from partial shading are associated with the PV cells connected in series within the array. This paper presents a simulation analysis of the output characteristics of a PV array considering five PV cells under PSCs. The PV array structure is illustrated in Figure 4.

**Figure 4.** Structure schematic diagram of PV arrays.

Each PV module configures the parameters in the simulation model described in Table 1. The simulation tests are carried out under standard irradiance conditions of 1000 W/m<sup>2</sup> and a standard ambient temperature of 25 ◦C. These tests are conducted under three different conditions, as detailed in Table 2: example 1 remains unshaded, while examples 2 and 3 are subjected to PSCs. Figure 5 illustrates a simulated diagram of the photovoltaic components tracking the MPP theory, while Figure 6 presents the P-V characteristic curve. The pseudo-code for obtaining the theoretical MPP is outlined in

Algorithm 1, where the theoretical MPP and the corresponding P-V curve are derived using the same method as described in this paper.



**Table 1.** Simulation model parameters for each PV module.


**Table 2.** PV panels subjected to different irradiances.


It can be observed that under non-standard irradiance intensity, the PV array demonstrates the occurrence of multiple peaks in its power output characteristic curve. The number of peaks and the power vary with the degree of shadowing. Therefore, accurately tracking the GMPP is crucial under PSCs.

**Figure 6.** P-V characteristic curve of PV array output.
