*5.1. Traditional Benchmark Functions*

The proposed HGTO-BWO was investigated via the solving of various traditional benchmark functions [71]; F1 to F13 have constant dimensions of 30, while the functions F14 to F23 have different dimensions. These functions are divided into the functions from F1 to F7, which are unimodal; F8 to F13, which are multi-modal; and F14 to F23, which are composites (See Supplementary Materials). Table 2 shows the statistical results of all the traditional benchmark functions; it includes the worst, average, best, standard deviation (std), and *p*-value. The values given in bold indicate the best solutions obtained by the proposed HGTO-BWO approach.


**Table 2.** Statistical analysis of traditional benchmark functions solved via the HGTO-BWO approach and other techniques.


**Table 2.** *Cont.*


**Table 2.** *Cont.*


**Table 2.** *Cont.*


**Table 2.** *Cont.*
