**2. System Model Simulation**

#### *2.1. Photovoltaic Modeling*

The PV system is a nonlinear source since it consists of a parallel-connected current source and a diode, where *Rs* denotes the metal junction loss.

The PV model is shown in Figure 1. The generation of photovoltaic current results from the action of electron flow, and its magnitude is exactly proportional to the quantity of irradiance (G), with low variations due to ambient temperature (T) and the use of the Shockley equation by [24,25].

**Figure 1.** Combined model of photovoltaic generation.

$$\mathbf{I} = I\_{pv} - I\_d \tag{1}$$

The PV system output can be addressed by:

$$I\_{pv} = I\_{ph} - \mathrm{I}\left(e^{\frac{qvp}{KT}} - 1\right) \tag{2}$$

The output power of the PV panel is formulated by:

$$P\_{pv} = V\_{pv} I\_{pv} \tag{3}$$

The output of solar energy is a property of the photovoltaic panels' rated capacity, and the PV de-rating factor, a measuring factor, permits the impact of many losses that may cause the PV module's output to be less than what it was originally [26]. The power generated by solar photovoltaics' (SPV) can be visualized as [26] follows:

$$Power\_{sp} = P\_s D\_s \left(\frac{I\_d}{I\_{aSTC}}\right) \left[1 + \beta\_d (T\_a - T\_{a,STC})\right] \tag{4}$$

*Ps* = estimated capacity of the SPV array (kW);

*Ds* = solar de-rating factor (%);

*Ia* = Incident SPV irradiation on the SPV array in present time (kW/m2);

*IaSTC* = incident SPV irradiation at the standard test condition (1 kW/m2);

*β<sup>a</sup>* = coefficient of the power temperature (%);

*Ta* = temperature of the SPV cell (◦C);

*Ta*,*STC* = SPV cell temperature at the standard test condition (25 ◦C).

If *β<sup>a</sup>* is overlooked in the PV interface grid system, then the power outcome may be conveyed as follows:

$$Power\_{sp} = P\_{\rm s} D\_{\rm s} \left(\frac{I\_{\rm a}}{I\_{\rm aSTC}}\right) \tag{5}$$

Partial Shading and the Impact of Bypass Diode

When SPV arrays are connected in series, they are subjected to constant illumination, and P-V I-V curves have a single maximum power point. However, they are not meant to receive homogenous irradiation when they are combined in a series–parallel fashion. Due to this occurrence, some arrays are unable to produce the intended results. Poor efficiency is the end result, and hot spot and non-matching problems are also introduced [27]. The purpose of the bypass diode is to decrease the effects of mismatching-related problems [28]. Figure 2 depicts a solar photovoltaic system with a blocking and bypass diode in a seriesshunt configuration.

**Figure 2.** SPV with a bypass diode and blocking diode designed in series-shunt combination.
