*2.1. Maternity Leave Policies across Industries*

Maternity leave policies remain under-researched. According to U.S. labor laws, maternity leave is not mandatory as a supportive policy for working mothers. Only a few states, specifically California, Hawaii, New Jersey, New York, and Rhode Island, have established paid leave legislature for family members, allowing up to 6 weeks under the temporary disability insurance (TBI) system [16]. Maternity leave policies usually have two important components: income replacement during leave for those who plan to return to work and the option to return to the same position once their leave is over [17]. In 2000, the International Labor Organization (ILO) set a standard maternity leave duration of 14 weeks, and of 185 countries with available data, 98 met or exceeded these standards, and 87 fell below these standards [16].

A study conducted by the Maven Clinic in the United States compared several policies and assessed the satisfaction of employees who worked at Great Places to Work's best workplaces versus other places to work. The findings revealed that working mothers received 80 days of paid maternity leave at the best places to work versus 70 days at other workplaces) [18]. The Great Places to Work best workplaces of 2022 include companies such as Hilton, Salesforce, Stryker, and Deloitte [19]. Furthermore, 92% of employees at the best places to work reported that they were willing to give extra to complete the job, while the rate was 83% for other workplaces [18].

Providing paid maternity leave may have led to a decrease in quiet quitting behaviors, as they may have felt more supported by their employers and their company. The ILO also recommends that women receive monetary benefits during maternity leave, and only two countries—the United States and Papa New Guinea—have no legal provisions for monetary benefits during maternity leave [16]. The policies regarding payment during leave vary from country to country. Most commonly, pay is calculated based on a person's previous salary, and this pay is consistent throughout the leave; however, benefits may also only be present or are higher during the first part of the leave and lower during the second part of the leave [16]. According to the ILO, employers should not discriminate against employees before, during, or after they take maternity leave and should guarantee their return to their pre-leave position. However, of the 146 countries on which data were available, 82 did not guarantee job protection [16].

A study that investigated trends in maternity leave over two decades found that maternity leave did not increase over the last 22 years, and even with the implementation of state laws that mandated paid leave, there was no national impact on the utilization of paid leave [20]. There is speculation that this lack of usage of paid maternity leave is due to a lack of awareness of the policies in place [16]. Additionally, a 2020 study that investigated disparities in maternity leave reported that 32% of working mothers did not take leave because they were not offered paid leave; 27% reported they did not take leave because they did not have financial stability; and 12% did not take leave because they were afraid of losing their jobs [21]. Other reasons mothers did not take maternity leave included that they had not built up enough leave time or that their workplaces did not have flexible policies [21]. Furthermore, women who are more likely to take maternity leave are those who have a higher education and are more likely to be older, married, and non-Hispanic White [20].

Many women, especially those working in low-income and direct care industries, may not have access to paid maternity leave, which can negatively impact maternal health and the quality of care received by children [21]. Maternity leave positively impacts working mothers' psychological well-being, with those who took maternity leave demonstrating lower levels of psychological distress [22]. These positive impacts may carry on later in life [23]. In addition to direct effects (i.e., reduce in postpartum depressive symptoms), maternity leave policies have been linked to depression in older age indicating that maternity leave may also have indirect effects by allowing time for the mother to bond with her child, reducing the likelihood for childhood disorders later in life and thus improving maternal well-being in old age [23]. Furthermore, maternity leave reduces premature birth and infant mortality rates in infants born to college-educated and married mothers [24]. The length of maternity leave also seems to be an important factor; a study in 2018 demonstrated that longer maternity leave, defined as >12 weeks, as well as paid leaves improves the negative effects of returning to work and is associated with better mental health outcomes [25]. while another study investigating the differences in maternity leave policies found that longer lengths of maternity leave are associated with a decrease in depressive symptoms up to 6 months after birth [23]. Maternity leave of less than 12 weeks (or absence of maternity leave) was associated with negative effects on mothers' mental health and their rate of return to work, as many have to quit their jobs to take care of their children [26] or may begin to suffer from burnout if they continue to work. Women in certain occupations seem to be more likely to take maternity leave than others; women in business occupations reported the highest use of paid maternity leave, followed by women in healthcare support. Building and grounds cleaning and maintenance workers reported the lowest usage of maternity leave, followed by women in personal care and service positions [20].

Furthermore, many mothers of color have less access to paid maternity leave than their White counterparts. A study that looked at the impacts of systematic racism on maternity leave revealed that Asian, Hispanic, and African American women received 0.9, 2.0, and 3.6 fewer weeks of pay equivalent to their full pay during parental leave than White women, and Hispanic and African American women had less access to paid maternity leave than White women [27]. Supporting these findings, the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2019) reported that only a little over 50% of women took paid leave in general before or after giving birth, and Hispanic and African American women were 5% less likely than their White counterparts to take paid maternity leave [28].

Thus, we propose the following hypotheses.

**Hypothesis 1.** *Working mothers who take maternity leave are less likely to adopt quiet quitting behaviors in the workplace compared to their peers who do not take maternity leave after childbirth.*

**Hypothesis 2.** *Working mothers who take paid maternity leave are less likely to adopt quiet quitting behaviors in the workplace compared to their peers who take non-paid maternity leave after childbirth.*

**Hypothesis 3.** *Working mothers who take longer maternity leave are less likely to adopt quiet quitting behaviors in the workplace compared to their peers who take shorter maternity leave after childbirth.*

## *2.2. Mental Health Problems of Working Mothers and Quiet Quitting Behaviors*

In the United States alone, a third of all workers suffer from workplace burnout [6]. Burnout is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as an occupational phenomenon resulting from chronic workplace stress that has not been successfully managed based on three criteria: (1) reduced professional efficiency, (2) increased mental distance from one's job and feelings of negativity or cynicism toward one's job, and (3) feelings of energy depletion or exhaustion [29]. Burnout has been able to significantly predict both physical and psychological consequences. [30] The physical consequences include, but are not limited to, type 2 diabetes, prolonged fatigue, headaches, and mortality below the age of 45 years [30]. The psychological consequences include, but are not limited to, depressive symptoms, insomnia, hospitalization for medical disorders, and the use of psychotropic and antidepressant medications [30]. Lack of paid maternity leave across the United States may contribute to burnout among new mothers who are not only working

long hours but are also taking care of a newborn baby. Furthermore, some may be dealing with postpartum physical recovery and medical complexities. Working mothers are 28% more likely to experience burnout than fathers because of the combined demands of both their work and home lives [31]. African American, Asian, and Latino women were found to be more likely to experience burnout than their White counterparts [31].

While many workplaces moved online during the COVID-19 pandemic, a vast number of people ended up losing their jobs and facing the challenges of unemployment. Surprisingly, however, many businesses simultaneously reported experiencing labor shortages due to difficulty hiring new workers. The SHRM Advocacy team investigated the reasons behind the labor shortages, despite many people being unemployed, and found that 70% of businesses believed that the labor shortages were due to the unemployment benefits available to people during the pandemic and not because of a lack of childcare or other support policies [32]. However, 42% of those who were unemployed or searching for a job reported that they had not heard back or received any offers from businesses. This was supported by findings from a study in Canada that reported that workers who were laid off before the pandemic had more difficulty finding a job than workers who were laid off during the pandemic [33].

The SHRM Advocacy team additionally found that 32% were afraid of being exposed to COVID-19 upon returning to work, and 22% reported that they quit because their previous jobs did not offer childcare benefits [32]. Despite these findings, only 23% of businesses implemented employee benefits, discounts, or incentives to attract potential new workers during the pandemic [32]. Many new mothers and younger women who are planning to have children will most likely place emphasis on childcare benefits when searching for a new job. To compensate for this labor shortage, 18% of businesses mentioned that they had to make their employees work overtime, and 6% reported that their employees had to take on extra work [32]. These policies can easily lead to burnout.

Other mental health challenges that may burden working mothers include anxiety and postpartum depression, which are the most common PMIs, but additional ones include postpartum psychosis, obsessive-compulsive disorders, and eating disorders [13]. Some mothers may also suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) due to a traumatic birth, miscarriage, or infertility issues or due to an NICU stay [13]. These mental illnesses can lead to additional complications, such as suicidal ideation, substance abuse, and the misattribution of symptoms of dangerous medical conditions to the mental illness rather than the actual condition [34]. These conditions can also lead to pre-term births and fetal growth impairments, which will add additional stress on a new mother [34].

Poor mental health is one of the most burdensome health concerns in the United States [35]. Nearly 1 in 5 adults suffer from a mental illness [36]. The prevalence of mental illness is higher in women, young adults aged 18–25, and those who identify with more than one race [36]. Those who suffer from mental illness also experience higher rates of disability and unemployment [35]. Several consequences can arise from mental illness, especially in the workplace. Those who suffer from mental illness may have more trouble completing tasks, communicating with coworkers, and engaging in their work [35]. However, access to paid maternity leave was found to decrease the rate of postpartum depression and intimate partner violence, positively impacting the mental health of mothers and children and improving child development [37]. Additionally, paid maternity leave has beneficial effects on the physical health of mothers and children, as it has been shown to decrease the number of mother and infant rehospitalizations, lower infant mortality rates, increase the number of pediatric visit attendance, ensure the timely administration of infant immunizations, and create positive impacts on breastfeeding, with an increase in its initiation and duration [37]. Despite these findings, a majority of U.S. states still do not have mandatory paid maternity leave policies, with only 16% of all employed American workers having access to paid maternity or paternity leave through their place of employment. As many as 23% of employed mothers return to work within 10 days of giving birth, spurred by their inability to afford their living expenses without income [37]. Those who are forced to return to work

early due to financial instability may not reap the benefits of the full maternity leave policy rather than if employers provided paid maternity leave. Paid maternity leave may be able to further reduce stress by providing a sense of job and financial security allowing mothers to better provide for their children; they may be able to buy better food and will have more time for doctors' appointments to obtain the proper immunizations or if the child falls ill [38].

The notion of quiet quitting has gained popularity online as a way of combating mental health challenges and promoting self-care. Those who participate in quiet quitting no longer go above and beyond in their work and simply accomplish the bare minimum to complete the job [39]. Some believe that quiet quitting is not about slacking off but more about setting healthy boundaries and not completing extra work without fair compensation [40].

Regardless of the potential consequences of quiet quitting, people continue to engage in related behaviors. Part of this is due to an increasing rate of burnout, which is a big risk for Gen Z employees, with 54% thinking about quitting [41]. During the pandemic, many younger workers were prone to depression and anxiety [41]. Thus, psychologists have argued that quiet quitting can help employees set professional boundaries, allow employees to feel as if they have a sense of control, help avoid burnout, and allow employees to prioritize what really matters [42]. Quiet quitting has become one of the trends that employees engage in when they want to eliminate the negative consequences of work, re-establish the work-life balance, and maintain well-being [5]. Those who engage in quiet quitting may be attempting to mediate the effects of burnout and the psychological consequences previously mentioned that may result from it. New mothers are already prone to postpartum depression, and burnout in the workplace will increase the risk of compounding mental illnesses, especially with the lack of paid maternity leave policies. Furthermore, this increased risk of burnout among new mothers may be a deciding factor in their decision to adopt quiet quitting behaviors.

Currently, more than 50% of the U.S. workforce is engaging in quiet quitting, which is a problem because the majority of workplaces require collaborative efforts from coworkers [6]. Furthermore, workplace disengagement increased further in 2022, with actively disengaged employees reaching 18%. This rate increased as a result of employees feeling that they were not cared about, a lack of clarity regarding expectations, few opportunities to learn and grow, and a lack of connection to the organization's mission or purpose [6]. Thus, dissatisfaction among U.S. employees has revolved around needs, purpose, and values [43].

Furthermore, U.S. employee engagement in jobs is falling across generations, with the lowest levels of engagement reported by Gen Z and Millennials (those born in 1989 and after) [44]. Gen Z and Millennials comprise 20.3% and 22% of the total workforce of the United States, respectively [45]. During the pandemic, younger workers reported feeling uncared about and as though they had few opportunities to advance and learn at their workplaces [6]. In fact, employees over the age of 35 were 10% more likely to be provided with opportunities for personal development and support than those under the age of 35, reducing Gen Z and Millennial commitment to the workforce [46]. Less than 40% of young workers in online or hybrid programs clearly understand what is expected of them at work [6]. All of these factors contribute to the lack of engagement and quiet quitting behaviors among younger generations.

Many new mothers are considered Millennials or Gen Z, and given that younger mothers are less likely to take maternity leave for several reasons, such as fear of employment termination and insufficient time off, this may contribute to their decision to adopt quiet quitting behaviors [18]. Compounded with a lack of appropriate maternity leave policies and career advancement opportunities, working mothers could be led to believe that their employers do not care about them and that they have few opportunities to work and grow. Additionally, if they cannot connect with the organization's purpose, they may wonder why they became involved with the organization in the first place, leading to disengagement [43]. Thus, they may become detached from their jobs and accomplish the minimum amount of work possible to get by.

Taking paid maternity leave, however, may also have undesired consequences. An experimental study conducted in Canada showed that female job candidates who reported taking longer maternity leave were viewed as less desirable. This is because maternity leave length is viewed as a direct measurement of workers' agency and commitment to the job [47]. Motherhood leads to a definite bias against the employment of women seeking jobs in traditionally male settings [48]. In general, parenthood changes the way in which both men and women are viewed in terms of their expected work focus, especially regarding expectations of dependability [48]. Among women who reported not taking paid leave, approximately 32% reported that their reason for doing so was because their jobs did not offer paid leave [18]. However, other reasons included not being able to financially afford to take leave, having not built up enough leave time, an inflexible work environment, and fear of losing their job [18].

Thus, given this context, this study proposes the following hypotheses:

**Hypothesis 4.** *Working mothers who take maternity leave show better emotional well-being than their peers who don't take maternity leave after childbirth.*

**Hypothesis 5.** *Working mothers who take paid maternity leave show better emotional well-being than their peers who take unpaid maternity leave after childbirth.*

**Hypothesis 6.** *Working mothers who take longer maternity leave show better emotional well-being than their peers who take shorter maternity leave after childbirth.*
