*2.1. Study Area*

Hungary is located in Central Europe and the Carpathian Basin, which is a part of the Pannonian biogeographic region (45◦43 to 48◦35 N and 16◦06 to 22◦53 E). The country is 93,033 km<sup>2</sup> and has an elevation range between 77 and 1014 m above sea level, and agricultural lands are typically located between 77 and 350 m altitude. Agriculture is the dominant land use, with non-irrigated arable land (Figure 1) accounting for 61% of the country's total area [29]. Winter wheat (Triticum aestivum), maize (Zea mays) and sunflowers (Helianthus annuus), which have been sown on up to 80% of Hungary's arable land in recent decades, were selected for the productivity assessment.

**Figure 1.** Arable land areas of Hungary (study area), based on Corine Land Cover 2018 dataset [30].
