*Article* **Pesticide Residues and Metabolites in Greek Honey and Pollen: Bees and Human Health Risk Assessment**

**Konstantinos M. Kasiotis \*, Effrosyni Zafeiraki, Electra Manea-Karga, Pelagia Anastasiadou and Kyriaki Machera**

> Laboratory of Pesticides' Toxicology, Department of Pesticides Control and Phytopharmacy, Benaki Phytopathological Institute, 145 61 Kifissia, Greece **\*** Correspondence: k.kasiotis@bpi.gr; Tel.: +30-2108180357

**Abstract:** Background: Bees encounter a plethora of environmental contaminants during nectar and pollen collection from plants. Consequently, after their entrance into the beehives, the transfer of numerous pollutants to apicultural products is inevitable. Methods: In this context, during the period of 2015–2020, 109 samples of honey, pollen, and beebread were sampled and analyzed for the determination of pesticides and their metabolites. More than 130 analytes were investigated in each sample by applying two validated multiresidue methods (HPLC-ESI-MS/MS and GC-MS/MS). Results: Until the end of 2020, 40 determinations were reported in honey, resulting in a 26% positive to at least one active substance. The concentrations of pesticides ranged from 1.3 ng/g to 785 ng/g honey. For seven active substances in honey and pollen, maximum residue limits (MRLs) exceedances were observed. Coumaphos, imidacloprid, acetamiprid, amitraz metabolites (DMF and DMPF), and tau-fluvalinate were the predominant compounds detected in honey, while several pyrethroids such as λ-cyhalothrin, cypermethrin, and cyfluthrin were also found. Pollen and beebread, as expected, accumulated a higher number of active substances and metabolites (32 in total), exhibiting almost double the number of detections. Conclusions: Although the above findings verify the occurrence of numerous pesticide and metabolite residues in both honey and pollen, the human risk assessment in the majority of the cases does not raise any concerns, and the same applies to bee risk assessment.

**Keywords:** pesticides; metabolites; LC-MS/MS; GC-MS/MS; honey; pollen; risk assessment
