**Approaches to Limiting Food Loss and Food Waste**

**Ioana Mihaela Balan, Teodor Ioan Trasca, Ioan Brad, Nastasia Belc, Camelia Tulcan, Bogdan Petru Radoi and Alexandru Erne Rinovetz**

#### **1. Introduction—Why and How Are the Quantities of Food Intended for Human Consumption Reduced?**

Dynamics of food security have evolved over time, being influenced by demographic, economic, political, and technological changes. In general, the pre-industrial period was characterized by limited food security, with low agricultural production and high dependence on weather conditions (FAO et al. 2020, 2021; Pingali 2006).

With the development of agriculture and technology during the Industrial Revolution, food production increased significantly and food security began to improve. However, since the 20th century, climate change, population growth, and increased urbanization have brought new challenges to food security. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Green Revolution introduced new agricultural technologies, such as the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, to increase food production in developing countries. This revolution has brought about a significant improvement in food security in many countries. However, in recent decades, food security has become increasingly threatened by climate change, rising food prices, food loss and food waste, poverty, and conflict. In addition, the COVID-19 pandemic has brought new challenges to food security by disrupting food supply chains and increasing food prices. Currently, there is an increased need to address these challenges and develop sustainable solutions to ensure food security for all people (FAO et al. 2020; Godfray et al. 2010; Hoddinott and Haddad 1995; Parfitt et al. 2010; Pingali 2006).

According to the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) 2021 report, in 2020, approximately 768 million people worldwide were severely food insecure, representing approximately 9.9% of the global population. People experiencing food insecurity are found in all regions of the world, but most are in poor or developing countries. According to FAO data, the highest rates of food insecurity are in sub-Saharan Africa, where about a fifth of the population faces the problem, followed by South Asia (about 14%) and Caribbean and Central America (about 7.6%) (FAO et al. 2020, 2021; Boyd et al. 2019; UN WFP 2023).

The World Food Programme (WFP) showed in 2020 that, of all food produced for human consumption globally, a third is lost or wasted. In 2020, this represented 1.3 billion tons of food loss and food waste, which cost over USD 1 trillion. Moreover, all of this food which was produced but never eaten would have been more than enough to feed two billion people. This is more than twice the number of undernourished and malnourished people on the entire planet. Every year, the population of developed countries wastes almost as much food as the entire net annual food production of sub-Saharan Africa. However, in low-income and developing countries, 40% of food loss occurs at the post-harvest/slaughter/catch and processing levels. From an environmental impact perspective, looking cumulatively at what global food loss and food waste mean in relation to environmental impact, if the total of these quantities were a country, this country would be the third largest producer of carbon dioxide in the world, after the USA and China (UN WFP 2023).

The world is facing many interconnected crises. The triple planetary crisis of climate change, nature and biodiversity loss, and pollution and waste is accelerating (United Nations Climate Change 2022). Meanwhile, the war in Ukraine and other protracted conflicts are raising the prices of staple grains and threatening food security in many countries. These crises undermine efforts to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (Ben Hassen and El Bilali 2022).

A shocking amount of food loss and food waste contributes to these crises, year after year. Even if estimates of their level differ from one source to another, due to the difficulties in collecting data from underdeveloped countries and some developing countries, categorically these quantities are enormous and worrying, especially in terms of their dynamics from one year to another. UNEP and FAO estimated in 2022 that 14% of the total food produced for human consumption is lost, while 17% is wasted. In the same report, UNEP and FAO noted in 2022 that food loss and food waste is sufficient to feed more than one billion people in a world where currently 828 million people are hungry and three billion cannot afford a healthy diet (FAO et al. 2022).

The link between food loss and food waste in terms of food security is an issue widely debated and analyzed by all international organizations dealing with food security concerns. The peculiarities of food systems in different countries and geographical areas determine the level of food loss and food waste, in the sense that they differ primarily according to the economic conditions of the country, geographical area, and a number of other factors which refer to the respective states (political, social conditions, presence of natural disasters, epidemics, etc.).

On the other hand, problems of food waste and food loss often present together, which can generate confusion and implicitly incorrect results of analyses and studies. This is why it is necessary that presentation and analysis of current situations and intervention measures to reduce food loss and waste be treated separately, because these two categories, both of which can reduce the amount of food available for consumption, have different causes and implicitly different solutions. Thus, approaches to food loss and food waste must be different.

The situation can be clarified by a simple analysis of the presence of food loss and food waste along the food chain, in different food systems, depending on the particularities of states. If food loss prevails in underdeveloped countries, it manifests itself in the first stages of the food chain. If food waste prevails in developed countries, it manifests itself in the last stages of the food chain (UN WFP 2021) (Figure 1).

**Figure 1.** Prevalence of food loss and food waste by geographic area. Source: Authors' interpretation of UN WFP (2021).

The aims of the study on food loss and waste presented in this chapter have important meanings. First of all, it has the role of highlighting and quantifying the extent of the problem. By identifying the amount of food that is lost or wasted and by understanding the causes and mechanisms involved, a clear global picture of impact on the environment, economy, and society can be achieved (Morone et al. 2019b).

Another aim is to identify and assess factors that contribute to food waste, such as consumption habits, infrastructure, distribution systems, and specific policies. This understanding is crucial to develop effective strategies and solutions to reduce food waste. This study can provide recommendations and guidelines for authorities, companies, organizations, and consumers to help them adopt sustainable practices and promote effective food management.

The significance of this study consists of multiple aspects. First, reducing food waste and loss has a direct impact on global food security. By using food resources more efficiently, we can ensure that food is available for all and reduce pressure on the environment and agricultural systems.

Additionally, the study of food waste has important economic implications. Food loss and waste is a direct waste of resources, capital, and labor. By reducing them, we can increase economic efficiency and generate a more circular and sustainable economy (Morone et al. 2018).

Finally, the study of food loss and waste also has an ethical dimension. With approximately one-third of the world's food production being lost or wasted while millions of people suffer from hunger and malnutrition, it is essential to address this issue and for the population to take responsibility for using food resources wisely, in a fairer and more sustainable way.

Thus, the ultimate goal of this chapter is to promote a more sustainable, equitable, and efficient food system that ensures adequate nutrition for all, protects the environment, and contributes to sustainable economic and social development.

#### **2. Materials and Methods**

In this book chapter, we used an interdisciplinary approach, addressing the topic of food loss and food waste from multiple perspectives, including economic, scientific, and cultural–religious. This interdisciplinary approach and analysis of specialized literature in the field of food loss and waste represents useful academic research tools for examining complex topics and providing a comprehensive perspective of food security.

The materials accessed in this book chapter consist of relevant and credible studies, articles, and data collections. The research methods were the analysis of external secondary and tertiary data, collected by accessing scientific databases such as Web of Science, Publons, ResearchGate, and Google Scholar, as well as data provided by international organizations such as the United Nations, Food and Agriculture Organization, World Food Program, International Fund for Agricultural Development, United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund, World Bank, Our World in Data and other relevant organizations, the main websites of religious denominations, and religious texts in electronic or printed format. Additionally, the collected data and studies of the authors were accessed, reinterpreted and corroborated, as were the results of our own published research, which were published in scientific journals. All these data were analyzed, compared, and discussed in order to synthesize as faithfully as possible the approaches to limiting food loss and food waste.

#### **3. Food Loss—Concept, Typology, Current Situation Worldwide**

Food loss occurs when food inevitably becomes unfit for human consumption before people can eat it. The prevalence is higher in lower-income countries due to specific factors, when food is damaged or destroyed unintentionally by pests or mold (UN WFP 2021).

In low-income countries, food waste is low, and food loss predominates. In these countries, the population has a low income, limited access to food and other resources, and cannot afford to waste food. However, the lack of adequate infrastructure for food production and quality generates food loss in the first stages of the food chain, which subsequently generates situations of food insecurity. Although the situation is as serious as that of food waste, with percentages being comparable, the difference is the nature of the causes. In the case of food waste, this is generally a voluntary expression of the consumer; in the case of food loss, there is an involuntary character, which cannot be controlled, more and more often, due to lack of material resources, which reduces the ability to protect food production.

In terms of relation to the food chain, food loss is manifested in the first stages, namely in the agricultural production phase, storage phase, and then in food processing phase, as well as in the distribution phase (Figure 2).

**Figure 2.** Prevalence of food loss and food waste in the food chain. Source: Authors' interpretation of FAO (2011a, 2011b).

Unlike food loss, which has involuntary human causes, food waste manifests itself in the last stages of the food chain as a voluntary attitude, namely in the retail trade and food service phase as well as in the food consumption phase at the household level. By exception, the retail phase may exhibit both forms of food reduction, namely food loss and food waste. This is due, in terms of food loss, to improper food display and marketing conditions. On the other hand, food waste can manifest itself in this retail phase of the food chain as a result of the aesthetic demands of consumers. Thus, various foods such as fruits or vegetables remain in

grocery stores or agro-food markets due to aesthetic defects that have nothing to do with their nutritional value.

In low-income countries, and sometimes not only in these countries, food can be lost as a result of the harvesting process taking place prematurely. Farmers with low incomes sometimes harvest crops too early, and the motivation is given by food deficiency or acute need for money, from the second half of the agricultural season. In this way, food loses its nutritional and economic value and can often be wasted if it is not suitable for consumption (FAO 2011a, 2011b).

Poor storage facilities and a lack of infrastructure cause post-harvest/ slaughter/catch food loss in developing countries. Many farms in low-income countries are not connected to electricity grids and have no other source of electricity, so storage conditions (temperature, humidity) are unsuitable for storing and preserving food. In addition, in many of these countries, the hot and humid climate competes to create a storage environment that is difficult to ensure in the absence of electricity sources. Fresh foods such as vegetables, fruits, meat, milk, eggs, and fish directly from the farm or after catch can be damaged in hot and/or excessively humid climates due to a lack of transport, storage, cooling infrastructure, and agri-food markets (FAO 2011a, 2011b).

According to UN's World Food Program USA (UN WFP 2021), causes of food loss are diverse, but the most important are:


As for the post-harvest/slaughter/catch loss, they vary according to their category (Table 1).


**Table 1.** Share of food loss in post-harvest/slaughter/catch processes.

Source: FAO (2019).

Use of cold technologies in the development of agricultural supply chains for meat, dairy products, fish, and vegetable products began in the early 1950s with the growth of the mechanical refrigeration industry. However, cold chains are still very limited in most developing countries (Meat.Milk 2022). There are many technical, logistical, and investment challenges as well as economic opportunities related to the use of cold chain. The main segments of an integrated cold chain include (Meat.Milk 2022)


Currently, a considerable part of this loss is caused by improper cold chain processes and management. However, worldwide, about a third of fresh fruit and vegetables are thrown away because their quality has fallen below an acceptable limit, which is totally unacceptable. Much of this loss is related to incorrect handling during supply chain processes. However, conceptually, the notion of "Expiry Date" is outdated; it only refers to number of days a food product is of "acceptable quality" and safe to eat, and these requirements depend on the conditions of optimum temperature and transport (Jedermann et al. 2014). A better concept, however, would be that of "First in—first out", which was introduced in the late 1980s. The idea behind the concept is to apply stock rotation so that each product's remaining shelf life best matches the remaining transport duration options, reducing product waste during transport, and ensuring product consistency in the store (Jedermann et al. 2014).

Food quality variations and remaining shelf life are automatically calculated from accumulated data on environmental conditions such as temperature variations and shelf life, which are then used by warehouse management software to match shelf life variation, stock rotation storage, routing and special handling. Unfortunately, due to a lack of automatic data capture and shelf life calculation systems, this much more efficient concept has found very few practical applications to date (Jedermann et al. 2014).

#### **4. Food Waste—Concept, Typology, Current Situation Worldwide**

In industrialized countries, food is lost when production exceeds demand. To ensure the delivery of agreed quantities while anticipating bad weather or unpredictable pest attacks, farmers sometimes make safe production plans and end up producing larger quantities than needed, even when conditions are "average". If they produced more than needed, some surplus crops are sold to processors or as

animal feed. However, this is often not financially viable given the lower prices in these sectors compared to retailers (FAO 2011a, 2011b).

Globally, about 14% of food produced is lost between harvest and retail, while an estimated 17% of total global food production is wasted: 11% in households, 5% in food services, and 2% in retail (United Nations 2022). However, the forms of food waste can be diverse if also analyzed from the perspective of the consumer. Thus, metabolic food waste is a real form of food waste, characterized by an overconsumption of food. Metabolic food waste has the same characteristics as any other form of food waste, i.e., it wastes food without needing to, thus reducing the amount of food that could be effectively consumed (Balan et al. 2022a).

On the other hand, unsafe food is not fit for human consumption and is therefore wasted. Failure to meet minimum food safety standards can lead to food loss and, in extreme cases, impact a country's food security status. A number of factors can lead to food insecurity, such as naturally occurring toxins in food, contaminated water, unsafe use of pesticides, and veterinary drug residues. Poor and unsanitary handling and storage conditions and a lack of adequate temperature control can also cause unsafe food (Toma et al. 2020).

Whether real or just perceived, food safety is one of the most important reasons for food waste, throughout the agri-food supply chain. On-farm food safety risks such as mycotoxin contamination of feed, overuse of antimicrobials in animal disease control, and the incursion of zoonotic diseases can lead to food unfit for human consumption and thus waste. Given the importance of food safety as one of the most important attributes of all food, proper risk management along the supply chain can help reduce food loss and waste. Therefore, there is a need to improve the coordination between food waste and food safety policies. This new approach to coordination must necessarily involve balancing scientific evidence and the precautionary principle. At the same time, it is necessary to review current regulations on food safety to identify those areas that generate waste that can be avoided. There is also a need for hazard monitoring combined with waste monitoring along the entire agri-food chain, followed by the provision of tailored and realistic information on the links between food safety and waste. Last but not least, investments in high-performance technologies are needed to accurately assess the degree of edibility of food. At the same time, increased attention is required on food labeling and packaging policies and practices. In their absence, it cannot be guaranteed that food labeling and packaging do not generate unintended and unnecessary impacts on food safety and, by implication, food waste, which are not justified by scientific evidence (Toma et al. 2020).

#### **5. Distribution of Food Loss and Food Waste along the Food Chain and Measures to Reduce Them**

The prevalence of food loss and waste varies according to the stage of the food chain. As shown above, in low-income countries, food loss in the early stages of the food chain is greater than food waste in the later stages of the food chain. This is diametrically opposite in high-income countries, where there is less food loss in the early stages of the food chain and more food waste in the later stages of the food chain. These variations directly depend on food systems and the level of technology, as well as the demands and requirements of the consumer, compared to the global level.

#### *5.1. Analyses of the Levels of Food Loss and Food Waste*

The level of food loss and waste is analyzed in order to achieve SDGs, especially SDG 12: Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns, Indicator 12.3.1: (a) Food loss index and (b) food waste index. Globally, the situation of these two indicators shows variations depending on a number of factors which are present in different geographical areas (Our World in Data 2009) (Figure 3).

**Figure 3.** Share of global food loss and waste by region. Source: Authors' interpretation of Our World in Data (2009). Legend: IA—Industrialized Asia; SSEA—South and Southeast Asia; EU—Europe; NAO—North America and Oceania; SSA—Sub-Saharan Africa; NAWCA—North Africa, West, and Central Asia; LA—Latin America.

It is noteworthy that over 50% of global food loss and waste is recorded in Asia. This fact is due to the large population, but also to specific conditions along the food chain. Europe and North America, together, present the same values as industrialized Asia. This fact shows that, although they are countries with a high level of industrialization, concerns and the effects of measures to reduce food loss and food waste are low (Lin et al. 2014).

The level of food waste recorded in 2019, depending on the segments of the food chain that involve retail and individual consumption, varies significantly depending on country, although they are interpretable depending on data collection methods.

The global reported level of food loss and waste in retail varies between 3.12 and 78.82 kg/year/capita, with the highest values in Malaysia, and lowest in New Zealand (Our World in Data 2019) (Figure 4).

**Figure 4.** The level of retail food waste. Source: Authors' interpretation of Our World in Data (2019).

Additionally, the global reported level of household food waste varied between 33.38 and 164.36 kg/year/capita, with the highest values in Rwanda, and the lowest in Russia (Our World in Data 2019) (Figure 5).

The global level of out-of-home food waste varies between 3.34 and 89.56 kg/year/capita, with the highest values in Malaysia and the lowest in Bangladesh (Our World in Data) (Figure 6).

**Figure 5.** The level of households food waste. Source: Authors' interpretation of Our World in Data (2019).

**Figure 6.** The level of out-of-home food waste. Source: Authors' interpretation of Our World in Data (2019).

The paradoxical situation of food consumption and waste is not only characteristic to some specific countries, but is a problem faced by many countries all over the world. Even in countries with high levels of food consumption, food waste remains a major challenge. This phenomenon can be attributed to common factors such as consumption habits, poor infrastructure, and insufficient education in effective food management (Falcone and Imbert 2017; Garcia-Herrero et al. 2018; Lin et al. 2014; Otles and Kartal 2018) (Box 1).

#### **Box 1.** The Paradox of Food Waste in Romania.

*At the national level, Romania, located in Southeast Europe, can be considered a representative example for the study of food loss and food waste, as well as for food security, due to the importance of the agricultural sector in economy, food diversity and authenticity, consumption behavior, infrastructure, and government policies. The study of these aspects can contribute to the development of effective strategies and policies to reduce waste and improve food security not only in Romania, but also globally. (Dumitru et al. 2021)*

*Romania is a country with an average level according to several criteria. From an economic point of view, Romania has registered a significant growth in recent decades, but it is still in the process of developing to reach the level of developed countries. Its GDP, although growing, is still below the European average. However, Romania has considerable economic potential, with rich natural resources and a skilled workforce, which can contribute to sustainable economic growth in the future.*

*The population of Romania is significant, being around 19 million inhabitants. Compared to other European countries, Romania has a relatively low population density, which can provide opportunities for development in certain areas. With a territorial area of approximately 238,397 square kilometers, Romania ranks as one of the largest countries in Central and Eastern Europe. This territorial expansion offers considerable potential for economic development and for geographical and cultural diversity. (World Countries n.d.)*

*An important aspect which has to be considered when analyzing Romania as an average country is food waste and loss. Romania faces challenges in efficient management of food resources and in reducing waste. Despite being an agricultural country with significant food production, an important part of this food is wasted before it reaches the final consumers. Efforts to reduce food loss and promote the more efficient management of food resources represent important challenges for the Romanian government and society as a whole. (Dumitru et al. 2021)*

*Romania has a strong agricultural tradition and rich natural resources, which makes it dependent on the agricultural sector. A good part of the economy is based on agriculture and food production. Thus, it is important to understand and analyze how production, distribution, and consumption processes are carried out in order to identify areas where food loss and waste occur. On the other hand, Romania enjoys a rich culinary diversity and a variety of traditional and local food products. This provides opportunities to study how these products are preserved and promoted, but also risks losing traditional knowledge and unique food resources. (IRCEM 2021)*

*Related to food consumption and behavior, the study of food waste and loss can also focus on the consumption habits of the population. Romania is experiencing changes in lifestyle and food preferences, and understanding how these influence the amount of wasted food can help to identify effective strategies to reduce them.*

*In Romania, infrastructure and food distribution systems play an important role in food waste. The study of Romania can highlight aspects related to storage, transport, and logistics, as well as how they can be improved to reduce food loss and waste. (IRCEM 2021; FEBA and CHEP 2016)*

*Government policies and initiatives of the Romanian Government involve measures to address the problem of food waste and loss. Policies and initiatives are implemented to promote food security, reduce waste, and improve food resource management systems. A Romanian case study can assess the effectiveness of these measures and provide examples and lessons for other countries. (Gheorghescu and Balan 2019a) In this context, a study from 2019 highlights that approximately 33% of the Romanian population spends 30–40% of their monthly income on food, while 29% of citizens allocate 20–30% of their monthly income for this purpose. Despite this fact, over 50% of food waste and loss occurs at the households level (Figure 7). (IRCEM 2021; Gheorghescu and Balan 2019b)*

*Romania faces a paradoxical situation in terms of food consumption and waste. Although the population spends a significant proportion of their monthly income on food relative to their standard of living, food waste remains a major problem. This can be attributed to several factors, including eating habits, poor infrastructure, and lack of education on effective food management. (Gheorghescu and Balan 2019a) One of the main reasons for the high food waste in Romania is related to consumption habits and food preferences. Sometimes, people buy more food than they can eat and it ends up being wasted. There is also a tendency to throw away food on its expiry date due to food safety concerns, even though it could still be eaten. Analyzing from another perspective, enormous amounts of food are wasted in Romania, and the population in a state of moderate and severe food insecurity has increased in recent years (Figure 8). (World Food Programme–Hunger Map 2022)*

**Figure 7.** The distribution of food loss and food waste in the Romanian food chain. Source: Authors' interpretations of Gheorghescu and Balan (2019b).

*In addition, poor infrastructure and an inefficient distribution system also contribute to food waste. Sometimes food spoils before reaching consumers due to deficiencies in supply chain, storage, or transportation. This leads to a loss of significant amounts of food, which could be avoided by better developed infrastructure and more efficient distribution systems.*

*To combat food waste in Romania, an integrated and coordinated approach is needed, which includes education and awareness among the population, improving infrastructure and distribution systems, as well as promoting efficient food management practices throughout the supply chain. Thus, Romania can reduce food loss and contribute to a more sustainable use of food resources, bringing benefits to the environment, economy, and well-being of the population. (Chereji et al. 2023; Gheorghescu and Balan 2019a)*

#### *5.2. Distribution of Food Loss and Food Waste along the Food Chain*

Production: Global loss at this stage is estimated at 20–40%, with considerable variation depending on the type of agricultural product. The main causes include pest and disease infestation, adverse climatic conditions, poor crop management, and deficiencies in infrastructure and logistics (FAO 2011a, 2011b).

Storage: Food loss at this stage can reach 10–20% globally. These are mainly due to improper storage conditions, such as inadequate temperatures or humidity, pest infestation, and improper handling of the product (FAO 2011a, 2011b).

Processing: Food loss at this stage varies with food product, but has been estimated at 5–20% globally. This can be caused by product mishandling, damage during transport, interruption of the cold chain, and improper storage (FAO 2011a, 2011b).

Distribution: Food loss at this stage is estimated at 10–15% globally, with significant variations by region and product type. These losses can be caused by poor transport and handling conditions, problems with infrastructure and logistics, and problems with documentation and import/export formalities (FAO 2011a, 2011b).

Retail and food services: This stage can be responsible for food loss of up to 5–10% globally, but also for food waste due to excess packaging, unsold products or products that expire on the shelf. Uneven marketing of products can also be a problem, leading to oversupply or undersupply. In food service, food waste can be caused by too-large portions or a failure to recover leftover food (FAO 2019). Food loss can occur at this stage due to product degradation during handling and transport, but also the withdrawal from sale of products that are no longer fresh or past their expiry date. There is also food waste due to unsold products or those that are thrown away for other reasons.

Household: According to the FAO, around 40% of global food waste occurs at the household level (FAO 2019). This includes food that is thrown away or that is damaged and thrown away, as well as food that is eaten as leftovers or leftover food that is thrown away.

This finding is confirmed by several studies and reports from around the world. For example, a study by the UK's Waste and Resources Action Program (WRAP) found that around 70% of food thrown away in the UK comes from households (WRAP 2021). Another study in Ontario, Canada, found that households are responsible for about 47% of all food waste in that region (Parfitt et al. 2010).

In general, household food waste can have many causes, such as overbuying food, improper food storage, past expiration dates, or preparing too much food. For this reason, taking steps to reduce food waste at household level can be a key point in waste reduction efforts. It is important to note that these figures are only estimates and food waste can be difficult to measure accurately in some regions.

The enormous amounts of food that are lost and wasted have prompted international organizations to try to reduce them for several years. Thus, numerous studies have been developed through which different key measures, as well as complementary measures, have been identified in order to reduce them. As we have shown before, the problem of humanity today is not the lack of food resources, but precisely the problem of food that, although it was intended for human consumption, never ends up being consumed (Falcone and Imbert 2017; Gheorghescu and Balan 2019a; Morone et al. 2019a, 2019b; Otles and Kartal 2018).

#### *5.3. Measures to Reduce Food Loss and Food Waste along the Food Chain*

Related to the food chain, these key measures and complementary measures can be synthesized according to the stage in which they take place. (FAO 2019; Parfitt et al. 2010; O'Donnell et al. 2015; Balan et al. 2022b; Meat.Milk 2022) (Figure 9).


**Figure 9.** *Cont.*


**Figure 9.** Key measures and complementary measures to reduce food loss and food waste along the food chain. Source: (FAO 2019; Parfitt et al. 2010; O'Donnell et al. 2015; Balan et al. 2022b; Meat.Milk 2022).

#### **6. The Impact of Food Loss and Food Waste on the Environment**

The further along the chain that food loss occurs, the more carbon-intensive the waste. For example, fruit and vegetables spoiled at the harvest stage will have a lower carbon footprint than jams or canned vegetables wasted at retail store, because harvesting, transport, and processing accumulate additional greenhouse gases along the supply chain (FAO 2011a, 2011b).

The environmental impact of food loss and waste can be quite significant and can have long-term negative effects on our planet. Here are some concrete examples: (Lipinski et al. 2013; FAO 2019; Kummu et al. 2012; Parfitt et al. 2010)

Greenhouse effect: When food is thrown away and decomposes, it releases greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane into the atmosphere. These gases contribute to global warming and climate change.

Energy and water consumption: Producing food requires a significant amount of energy and water, and when food is thrown away, that energy and water is wasted. In addition, the food production process can deplete natural resources such as soil and water.

Land development and deforestation: To produce food, land must be cultivated and maintained, which can lead to deforestation and overdevelopment of agricultural land. This can lead to the loss of natural habitats for animals and plants, as well as soil and water pollution.

On global average, the per capita climate footprint of food waste in high-income countries is more than double that of low-income countries, due to wasteful food distribution and consumption patterns in high-income countries (Table 2) (FAO et al. 2020).


**Table 2.** Per capita food wastage CO<sup>2</sup> footprint on climate.

Source: FAO et al. (2020).

As previously shown, if food waste were analyzed as a country, this country would be the third largest emitter of CO<sup>2</sup> in the world, after China and the USA (FAO 2013).

Globally, food loss and food waste generate 4.4 GtCO<sup>2</sup> equivalent annually, or about 8% of total anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This means that the contribution of wasted food emissions to global warming is almost equivalent to global emissions from road transport, i.e., 87% of them. (FAO 2013) At the same time, the volume of water used for them is equivalent to that of Lake Geneva, and the agricultural area used is approximately 30% of the total agricultural area (Figure 10).

**Figure 10.** Environmental impact of food loss and food waste. Source: Authors' interpretation of Geneva Environment Network (2022).

#### **7. Ethics Regarding Food Loss and Food Waste**

Ethically, food loss and waste also have significant implications. From the perspective of inequitable food distribution, food waste exacerbates inequality and poverty around the world. Food loss and food waste reduce the total amount of food available, which can lead to higher prices and increase the difficulty of accessing food for those who are already socio-economically vulnerable.

The environmental impact is felt by the entire population, both those who waste food and those who do not waste food. Food waste contributes to environmental pollution through greenhouse gas emissions and the production of food waste that ends up in landfills, affecting both those who waste food and those who ethically manage food resources and avoid waste.

At the same time, the limitation of resources also affects the entire population. Food loss and waste is an inefficient use of the planet's limited resources. Food production involves the use of many natural and financial resources such as water, land, energy, and workforce. Wasting and losing food constitutes an inefficient exploitation of these resources, which could be used for other important purposes (Gustavsson et al. 2011; Buzby et al. 2014; Kantor et al. 1997).

In terms of business ethics, companies that contribute to food waste can be perceived as unethical. These companies not only make financial losses, but also contribute to negative environmental impact and social problems. Such companies could be seen as prioritizing their profits over ethical values such as social and environmental responsibility (Gustavsson et al. 2011).

Overall, food loss and food waste are complex ethical issues with negative environmental and societal implications. Solving these problems requires a strong commitment from governments, companies, and individual consumers to improve the efficiency and sustainability of the food system (Gustavsson et al. 2011; Buzby et al. 2014; Kantor et al. 1997; De Schutter 2014; Lipinski et al. 2013).

On the other hand, at the religious level, since ancient times, humanity has been concerned with reducing food waste. However, with the rise of technology and, implicitly, modern man, humanity's responsibility towards food and towards all resources necessary to obtain it (water, land, workforce, energy) has obviously decreased. However, throughout history, the situation has not always been the same as it is today. It is important to note that, in general, all religions and spiritual traditions emphasize the importance of respect for food and nourishment and encourage moderation and generosity.

In Christianity, biblical passages in the Old and New Testaments that refer to waste and respect for food and foodstuffs are numerous. Perhaps the most representative is "When they were all full, Jesus said to his disciples: "*Gather up the pieces that are left over. Let nothing be wasted*." (John 6:12. The Holy Bible; https: //www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%206&version=NIV, accessed on 2 March 2023)

In Quran it is stated precisely and representatively: "*Eat and drink, but do not waste, for He does not love the wasteful.*" (Quran 7:31; https://quran.com/7/ 31?translations=20,44,17,85,18,95,48,39,26,101,41,19,22,38,31,27,33, accessed on 2 March 2023)

In one of Judaism's most important texts, the Talmud, there are several references to the importance of avoiding food waste. Perhaps most eloquent in this context are "*It is forbidden to throw away food or destroy it on purpose*" (Talmud,

Shabbat 128a; https://www.sefaria.org/Shabbat?tab=contents, accessed on 2 March 2023) and "*No one should throw away food, but should feed it to domestic and wild animals*." (Talmud, Baba Metzia 62b).

Some references in canonical Buddhist texts regarding reduction in food waste are: "*Food should never be wasted, but should be treated as if it were nectar*" (Vinaya Pitaka, Part I, Sutta 3; https://www.britannica.com/topic/Vinaya-Pitaka, accessed on 20 September 2023), "*We should recognize the efforts and work done by people to produce the food that we eat and do not waste it*" (Majjhima Nikaya, Sutta 55; https: //www.britannica.com/topic/Majjhima-Nikaya, accessed on 20 September 2023), and "*We should be careful not to waste food and not we treat it with contempt, because every morsel of food is a valuable treasure*" (Sutta Nipata, Sutta 103; https://www.britannica. com/topic/Suttanipata, accessed on 20 September 2023).

In Hindu religious texts, there are also references to food waste and the importance of respecting food. Here are some examples and information about where to find them in the respective texts: "*If you waste food, you also waste the life within you*" (Mahabharata, Book 13, Anusasana Parva, Section XLVIII; https://www. britannica.com/topic/Mahabharata, accessed on 20 September 2023), "*Do not waste food, because it is the source of your life and wealth*" (Yajurveda, Taittiriya Upanishad, Shiksha Valli, Anuvaka 11; https://www.britannica.com/topic/Yajurveda, accessed on 20 September 2023), and "*We should cherish food and not waste it, because it is the source of life and vitality*" (Bhagavadgita, chp. 17, Verse 10; https://www.britannica. com/topic/Bhagavadgita, accessed on 20 September 2023).

These examples emphasize the importance of valuing and respecting food, and that food is source of life and wealth. In the Hindu religion, food is considered a form of divine gift and should therefore be treated with respect and gratitude.

In the Sikh religion, food is considered sacred and should be respected as such. There is the concept of "langar", which is a kind of community kitchen where food is provided for free and everyone is welcome to eat together, regardless of caste or social status (Nesbitt 2016).

In the Taoist tradition, great importance is placed on food and nutrition, believing that food is essential to the health of body and mind. The consumption of natural and whole foods is promoted and food waste is avoided (Maoshing and McNease 2012).

In Confucian philosophy, food and eating are seen as an act of respect for oneself and others. Respect and appreciation of food is promoted, and food waste is seen as an undesirable behavior (Eno 2015).

These are just a few examples of religions and spiritual traditions that place great importance on food and avoid food waste.

#### **8. Conclusions**

Food loss and waste is a global problem with a significant impact on society in general, with economic, social, and ecological consequences. The economic effects of food loss and waste are significant, as they increase the cost of food production, transport, and storage. Furthermore, food loss and food waste reduce the profitability of food businesses and ultimately affect food prices for end consumers.

The social impact of food loss and waste is also important, as it can lead to hunger and malnutrition, especially in low- and middle-income countries. Food loss and waste also contribute to economic and social inequality by reducing access to quality and affordable food.

In terms of ecological impact, food loss and food waste are a major environmental problem. They generate greenhouse gas emissions and unnecessary use of natural resources such as water, land, and energy, thus contributing to climate change and environmental degradation. In this context, reducing food loss and waste is a global priority and requires immediate action at all levels. These actions may include improving food production, transport, and storage systems, educating consumers about the importance of reducing food loss and food waste, and promoting technological innovations to improve efficiency and sustainability of the food chain.

Initiatives and programs aimed at reducing food loss and food waste are diverse and at different levels. There are many initiatives globally that aim to reduce food loss and food waste at the production level by improving production and distribution systems and promote more sustainable practices, in the context of the UN's Sustainable Development Goal 2—Zero Hunger (SDG 2—Zero Hunger). An example of such an initiative is the UNEP, which launched a program called "Think.Eat.Save" to promote a reduction in food waste globally (United Nations 2022). There are also numerous consumer campaigns and initiatives that try to promote a more responsible attitude towards food and reduce food waste. These include education and awareness programs, as well as campaigns to reduce food waste at the level of households and public institutions. An example of such an initiative is "Save Food, Fight Waste", an awareness campaign launched by the Swiss Government to promote reduction in food waste (Government of Switzerland 2022). In addition, there are also non-governmental organizations and volunteer groups working to reduce food waste by collecting and redistributing uneaten food. An example of such

an organization is Feeding America (https://www.feedingamerica.org/about-us, accessed on 28 December 2022), a US charity that collects uneaten food and redistributes it to those who need it.

Food loss and waste is a complex problem and efforts are being made at all levels to reduce it. However, the initiatives are insufficient. It is important that actions focus on finding viable, efficient, and effective solutions to reduce food loss and waste and promote more efficient and sustainable use of food resources, in the context to assure social, economic, and environmental necessary conditions (Figure 11).

**Figure 11.** Hierarchy of food recovery. Source: Authors' interpretation of CEC (2023).

The FAO's 2011 assessment of global food loss and waste estimated that, each year, one-third of all food produced worldwide for human consumption never reaches the consumer's table. This is not only a missed opportunity for the economy and food security, but also a waste of all the natural resources used to grow, process, pack, transport, and market food. Through an extensive literature search, a 2011 assessment of food waste volumes gathered weighted ratios of food loss and waste for different regions of the world, and examined different commodity groups and different stages of the supply chain. These ratios have been applied to regional food mass flows in FAO's Food Balance Sheets 2007. Food waste occurs at all stages of the food supply chain for a variety of reasons that dependent largely

on the local conditions in each country. Globally, a pattern is clearly visible; in high-income regions, volumes of wasted food are higher in the processing, distribution, and consumption stages, while in low-income countries, food loss occurs in the production and post-harvest/slaughter/catch stages.

Future lines of research on food loss and waste should focus on several key aspects. First, it is important to continue to develop and improve methods for quantifying levels of food loss and waste (Morone et al. 2019a). Current methods can often be limited by accuracy and difficulties in collecting relevant data. Therefore, researchers should explore new approaches and technologies that allow a more accurate and efficient estimation of the amount of food loss and waste at different stages of the food chain.

Another important aspect is the analysis of the causes and factors that contribute to food waste. A deeper understanding of consumption habits, food preferences, production practices, and structural factors that can influence food waste is needed. This could involve researching consumer behavior, food policy, distribution systems, and infrastructure to identify hotspots and effective solutions to reduce waste.

It is also important to assess the impact of food loss and waste on the environment, economy, and society. Research should focus on assessing food waste's carbon footprint, greenhouse gas emissions, water footprint, estimating associated economic and social costs, and analyzing impacts on food security and human health.

As we move forward in food waste research, we should also promote collaboration between different disciplines and sectors (Otles and Kartal 2018). Interdisciplinary research can bring innovative insights and approaches, such as integrating digital technologies and real-time data analytics to monitor and reduce food waste.

As a necessity that imposes itself, future research directions should focus on developing more accurate and efficient methods to quantify food waste, understanding the causes and factors involved, and assessing the environmental and economic impacts. By addressing these issues, we can make significant progress in reducing food waste and promoting a more sustainable and efficient food system.

As a wake-up call, humanity needs to take note that if food loss and food waste are not reduced worldwide, several negative things will happen:

• Increasing poverty and hunger: Food loss and food waste reduce the amount of food available to eat. This can increase food prices and make them unaffordable for those living in poverty, increasing the risk of hunger and malnutrition.


In the context of SDG 2—Zero Hunger, the development of efficient and effective programs to reduce levels of food loss and waste can ensure more food for more people, provided they pursue equity and equality among all people in the world. At the same time, it will have a positive impact on the environment, productivity will increase, economic growth will be generated and societies will become more sustainable.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, I.M.B. and T.I.T.; Methodology, I.B. and N.B.; Software, B.P.R. and A.E.R.; Validation, I.M.B. and T.I.T.; Formal Analysis, C.T., B.P.R., and A.E.R.; Investigation, I.M.B., T.I.T., and C.T.; Resources, B.P.R. and A.E.R.; Data Curation, C.T., B.P.R., and A.E.R.; Writing—Original Draft Preparation, I.M.B.; Writing—Review and Editing, T.I.T. and C.T.; Visualization, I.M.B., T.I.T., and C.T.; Supervision, I.B. and N.B.; Project administration, I.M.B.; Funding Acquisition, C.T. and N.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This research was performed in the frame of the project Development and consolidation of the METROFOOD-RI National Network, grant offered by the Romanian Minister of Research, Innovation, and Digitalization, as Intermediate Body for the Competitiveness Operational Program 2014–2020, call POC/78/1/2/, project number SMIS2014 + 136213, acronym METROFOOD-RO.

**Acknowledgments:** This research was performed in University of Life Sciences "King Mihai I of Romania"—Research Institute for Biosecurity and Bioengineering.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.

#### **References**


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