**Coconut-Based Livestock Farming: A Sustainable Approach to Enhancing Food Security in Sri Lanka**

### **Tharindu D. Nuwarapaksha, Shashi S. Udumann, Nuwandhya S. Dissanayaka and Anjana J. Atapattu**

#### **1. Introduction**

Coconut (*Cocos nucifera* L.) has emerged as a versatile plantation crop, carrying crucial nutritional value and boundless functionalities that open doors to various industrial undertakings (Nair 2021). With the diverse applications of its different parts, the coconut palm has become an inseparable aspect of the social, economic, and cultural lives of nearly 80 million people across 92 countries (Nair 2021; Beveridge et al. 2022). The history of coconut cultivation in Sri Lanka can be traced back to 330 B.C. The crop is grown across twenty-five administrative districts on the island. In many aspects, coconut cultivation bears similarities to the extension and historical significance of paddy cultivation. Regarding land coverage, coconut ranks second, following the country's staple food crop, paddy, accounting for approximately 20% of the total agricultural extent on the island. The coconut industry also contributes to 0.7% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), with the total extent of coconut cultivation in the country being 505,000 hectares (CBSL 2021). Annual coconut production fluctuates yearly due to various factors, such as weather conditions, disease outbreaks, and market demand (Utomo et al. 2016). Approximately 58% of coconut cultivation is concentrated in three districts: Gampaha, Kurunegala, and Puttalam, which are collectively known as the "Coconut Triangle" (Esham and Wijeratne 2021). Regarding the share of the total coconut extent compared to the total agricultural extent by district, Puttalam district stands at the top, with approximately 69.8% of its land devoted to coconut cultivation. Gampaha district follows closely at 64.0%, and Kurunegala district is at 60.6% (DCS 2021). The lowest share is reported in Nuwara Eliya district, where only 0.6% of the land is allocated to coconut cultivation due to the dominance of tea as the primary crop.

Moreover, animal husbandry plays a crucial role in the Sri Lankan agricultural sector, with a focus on raising various types of animals. Similar to coconut farming, the livestock sector makes a comparable contribution of approximately 0.75% to the total GDP (CBSL 2021). The main livestock raised in the country include cattle, water buffalo, goats, sheep, pigs, and poultry (Perera and Jayasuriya 2008). Cattle and water buffalo are primarily bred for milk production, making a significant contribution to the dairy sector. On the other hand, goats and sheep are versatile animals used for milk and meat production (Rout and Behera 2021). In Sri Lanka, traditional animal husbandry practices typically revolve around small-scale, mixed crop–livestock farming systems. However, coconut plays a significant role as a plantation crop in Sri Lanka, and due to its specific morphological characteristics, only 25% of this land is utilized for monoculture coconut cultivation (Samarajeewa et al. 2003; Nuwarapaksha et al. 2022).

The practice of incorporating livestock into coconut farming to achieve maximum land use efficiency is becoming popular among coconut farmers. This is primarily because of its potential to improve resource sharing, especially in areas with limited land for intercropping on coconut farms (Nuwarapaksha et al. 2023a). This presents opportunities for the integration of livestock or intercropping practices on coconut land. According to Ibrahim and Jayatileka (2000), approximately 22% of natural grasslands exist on coconut land; therefore, it has been identified as a prime location for the development of livestock activities. The abundance of coconut plantations in Sri Lanka presents an excellent opportunity for implementing sustainable agricultural practices and advancing livestock development (Nuwarapaksha et al. 2022). Leveraging the inherent strengths of Sri Lanka, the cultivation of forage crops in coconut plantations stands as the key substantial agricultural endeavor (Table 1). Recognizing the capabilities of the nation, strategically incorporating livestock or intercropping practices within these coconut-rich areas presents a noteworthy opportunity to advance agricultural sustainability across the country.

The intersection of coconut farming and animal husbandry assumes a key role in ensuring food security, as noted by Ansar and Fathurrahman (2018). The deep involvement of the rural population in coconut cultivation and other agroforestry pursuits establishes a robust link to the production of food, wood, energy resources, and animal feed. Additionally, forests contribute significantly to vital ecological functions, encompassing carbon storage, the preservation of wildlife habitats, and the protection of environmental resources. Consequently, these multifaceted contributions offer a tangible pathway toward achieving the SDGs (Ruba and Talucder 2023). In the pursuit of achieving the SDGs, they have been categorized into five distinct groups, each dedicated to addressing specific thematic areas. These categories include Category 1 (encompassing SDGs 1–5, addressing poverty), Category 2 (covering SDGs 6–9, related to development infrastructure), Category

3 (addressing SDGs 10–12, focusing on sustainable production and consumption), Category 4 (encompassing SDGs 13–15, related to green infrastructure), and Category 5 (incorporating SDGs 16–17, concerning green institutions) (Sharma et al. 2022). Within the context of coconut-based livestock farming systems, it has been observed that Category 1 and SDG 2 have been particularly well realized (McElwee et al. 2020). Hence, the primary objective of this chapter is to investigate the concept of coconut-based livestock farming in the Sri Lankan context, aiming to contribute to the realization of the SDGs, particularly in the realm of ensuring food security.


**Table 1.** Forage sources, land extent, and expected production in Sri Lanka.

\* Minimum 3 defoliations during the season for the total land extent; \*\* minimum 2 defoliations during the season for total land extent. Source: Authors' compilation based on data from Weerasinghe (2019).

#### **2. Coconut-Based Livestock Farming Systems**

The coconut-based livestock farming system involves integrating livestock and crops on the same land to establish a mutually beneficial relationship between them (Devendra 2007). This approach can take various forms, including agroforestry, silvopastoral systems, mixed crop–livestock systems, and integrated crop–livestock systems, all characterized by the interdependence of their components (Altieri et al. 2015). By combining crops and animals, farmers can achieve several advantages, such as diversifying production, lessening reliance on external inputs, enhancing resilience to climate variations and market fluctuations, and increasing overall income. Moreover, this integrated approach fosters improved soil health, biodiversity, reduced greenhouse gas emissions, and more effective waste management (Lehmann et al. 2020).

#### *2.1. Coconut-Based Agroforestry Systems*

Coconut-based agroforestry refers to a land management practice that combines the cultivation of coconut trees with the integration of other tree species, agricultural crops, and livestock in the same farming system (Dissanayaka et al. 2023). This agroforestry approach aims to optimize the utilization of land, enhance overall productivity, and promote environmental sustainability by harnessing the benefits of diverse components (Atapattu et al. 2017). In addition to coconut trees, other crop species are strategically planted within the coconut plantation (Figure 1). These companion crops can include fruit crops, vegetable crops, export agriculture crops, forages, timber crops, or legume crops that contribute to soil fertility and ecosystem health (Nuwarapaksha et al. 2022). The combination of different tree species provides a range of ecological and economic benefits, such as improving biodiversity, enhancing carbon sequestration, and generating additional income from various tree products (Jose 2009). The overarching goal is to maximize the social, economic, and environmental benefits for land users at various levels. Agroforestry plays a significant role in climate-smart agriculture, serving both adaptation and mitigation purposes (Dawid Mume and Workalemahu 2021). Trees and agroforestry systems offer a diverse array of goods and services that can serve as substitutes for one another and, under suitable conditions, can be produced in a synergistic manner. Livestock-keeping serves as a means to diversify the production options of rural communities and is frequently suited to marginal environments. This adaptability can contribute to enhancing climate resilience within these communities (Behera and France 2016). The interaction between agroforestry and livestock-keeping is vital for the livelihoods of rural communities, and the combination of these two practices plays a crucial role in supporting and sustaining the well-being of rural communities.

**Figure 1.** Components of coconut-based livestock farming systems: (**a**) coconut + gliricidia + pepper mixed cropping; (**b**) fodder sorghum grass cultivation under coconut plantation; (**c**) goat naturally grazing on coconut land; (**d**) biogas production under coconut plantation. Source: Figures by authors.

#### *2.2. Coconut-Based Silvopastoral Systems*

Silvopastoral farming is a popular practice involving cultivating a harmonious combination of grasses, legumes, and trees while raising livestock on the same parcel of land (Kreitzman et al. 2022). Its aim to optimize land productivity, conserve soil and water, and yield a variety of resources such as forage, fuelwood, and timber on a sustainable basis. Planting trees and understory components is essential to create a thriving silvopastoral system (Gautam et al. 2003). The main difference between agroforestry and silvopastoral systems is their emphasis and scope. Agroforestry encompasses a broader range of interactions between trees and various agricultural or livestock activities, while silvopastoral systems specifically focus on integrating fodder grasses with livestock grazing (Soler et al. 2018). Mainly forages and shrubs are planted to feed the animals, and the livestock manure is used as crop fertilizer (Figure 1). The integration of trees, grasses, and legumes (gliricidia) in silvopasture contributes to soil and moisture conservation (Raveendra et al. 2021). The specific

systems and practices are identified based on the trees' or shrubs' role in the setup (Leakey 2017). The successful establishment of silvopasture involves the careful selection of suitable tree species, shrubs, grasses, and legumes suited to different regions. Additionally, measures to protect the area from animals and appropriate soil and water conservation methods are crucial. However, a well-designed and properly managed silvopastoral system aligns closely with the goals of SDG 2 by addressing hunger, promoting sustainable agriculture, and improving food security and nutrition. Its multifunctional benefits contribute to a more resilient and holistic approach to meeting the global challenges of food production and access.

#### *2.3. Coconut-Based Mixed Crop–Livestock Systems*

The mixed crop–livestock system focuses on integrating crops and livestock (Thornton and Herrero 2014). This system aims to achieve mutual benefits between crops and livestock, each supporting and complementing the other regarding resources, productivity, and sustainability. In mixed crop–livestock systems, farmers strategically plan the integration of crops and livestock based on their complementary interactions (Figure 1). For instance, crop residues, such as leftover plant materials after harvest, can serve as valuable feed for livestock, reducing the need for additional fodder. In return, the manure produced by the livestock serves as a natural fertilizer for the crops, enhancing soil fertility and nutrient cycling. The diversity introduced by mixed crop–livestock systems contributes to improved resilience against climatic variability and potential economic risks (Thornton and Herrero 2014). Farmers are less dependent on a single income source, as they can derive revenue from both crop sales and livestock products, such as meat, milk, and wool. Crop–livestock integration also helps in managing pests and diseases. For example, some livestock species can graze on weeds that would otherwise compete with crops for resources or act as hosts for pests (Hilimire 2011). Overall, mixed crop–livestock systems offer a promising approach to sustainable and resilient agriculture, providing a balance between food production, natural resource conservation, and economic stability for farming communities (Sekaran et al. 2021). By harnessing the benefits of crops and livestock, these integrated systems contribute to promoting food security and sustainable development in various regions across the world.

#### *2.4. Coconut-Based Integrated Crop–Livestock Systems*

The core component of these systems is coconut cultivation, and they are typically combined with other crops such as intercropping of food crops or forages beneath the coconut canopy. Livestock may also be reared on the same land. This practice is known as intercropping or mixed cropping and allows for the simultaneous cultivation of food crops, vegetables, or forages, which complement coconut farming (Sekaran et al. 2021). Coconut-based integrated crop–livestock systems are innovative and sustainable agricultural practices that revolve around the cultivation of coconut trees alongside the integration of diverse crops and livestock (Wulandari 2021), while biogas production is a crucial and necessary component in an integrated crop–livestock system (Figure 1). It plays a pivotal role in converting organic waste, such as livestock manure and agricultural residues, into valuable biogas and nutrient-rich digestate. This biogas serves as a renewable energy source, while the digestate can be used as a natural fertilizer for crops, completing the cycle of sustainability (Surendra et al. 2014). By utilizing the anaerobic digestion process, methane-rich biogas can be extracted from organic waste materials, which can then be harnessed for cooking, heating, and electricity generation in daily life. The diverse array of crops adds to the overall farm productivity and provides additional income sources. Furthermore, coconut-based integrated crop–livestock systems often include livestock rearing as an integral component (Seresinhe and Sujani 2016). The well-managed integration of coconut-based cultivation with livestock rearing epitomizes harmonious alignment with the objectives of SDG 2.

#### **3. Fodder Production and Conservation on Coconut Land**

Fodder crops play a significant role in enhancing livelihoods through diverse means. The primary ways in which fodder crops contribute to improved food security, increased incomes, and overall better livelihoods have been demonstrated (Franzel et al. 2014). Apart from naturally occurring and naturalized varieties like guinea grass, there are a few cultivated pasture and fodder varieties in Sri Lanka. The most commonly established variety is the hybrid Napier (CO3) (Weerasinghe 2019). CO3 is specifically grown for livestock use and receives government support through the Department of Animal Production and Health and its respective provincial authorities. It is primarily cultivated for farmers' own use, although there are a few instances where it is grown for sale outside the farm. In addition to CO3, CO4, CO5, and Red Napier, are also gaining popularity among farmers as improved fodder varieties (Figure 2). Additionally, farmers cultivate fodder sorghum and fodder maize to feed the livestock. Additionally, gliricidia and ipil-ipil are also grown, primarily for use as boundary fencing and as feed for ruminant animals (Weerasinghe 2019; Nuwarapaksha et al. 2023b).

**Figure 2.** Fodder grasses: (**a**) CO3; (**b**) CO4; (**c**) CO5; and (**d**) Red Napier cultivation under coconut plantation. Source: Figures by authors.

The primary method of conserving fodder in Sri Lanka is through the use of silage (Figure 3). Previous attempts to produce hay using readily available grasses have been made through various programs, but these efforts have been unsuccessful thus far. The lack of commercial or large-scale pasture production in the country, unfavorable weather conditions (such as heavy rain during the two monsoon seasons affecting haymaking, and a scarcity of good-quality pasture during the dry season), and high operational costs are potential reasons for this lack of success. In contrast, silage-making has become viable for commercial dairy farms and small-scale on-farm use. There are three main methods of silage production: small-scale silage production using plastic barrels or vacuum-packed polythene bags, bunker silage production at large-scale commercial dairy farms, and commercial silage production, mainly in bales (Weerasinghe 2019). The crops used for this purpose are maize and/or sorghum; typically, the silage is produced for on-farm use.

**Figure 3.** Small-scale barrel silage production from fodder maize grasses. Source: Figures by authors.

#### **4. Contributions of Coconut-Based Livestock Farming to SDGs**

Coconut-based livestock farming can contribute significantly to achieving several SDGs, including SDG 2. Both coconut cultivation and animal husbandry practices can improve the productivity of animals and coconut land' and the quality of the products produced from them (Devendra 2007). They can also play a role in sustainable food production and preserving genetic diversity, especially in relation to eradicating hunger, promoting sustainable agriculture, and ensuring the well-being of communities. The following SDGs can be achieved mainly through coconut-based livestock farming systems (Figure 4). By using coconut by-products as livestock feed and integrating coconut farming with animal husbandry, we can enhance the availability of nutritious food for both humans and animals. Increased livestock productivity can provide a sustainable source of foods and beverages, contributing to food security and reducing hunger. Coconut-based livestock farming can enhance food security and nutrition by providing a diversified source of food products, such as milk, meat, and eggs, to meet the dietary needs of the population (SDG 2) (Paramesh et al. 2022).

Integrating livestock activities within coconut plantations can create employment opportunities, particularly in rural areas, leading to economic growth and poverty reduction (SDG 8) (Devendra and Chantalakhana 2002). By adopting sustainable practices in coconut-based livestock farming, such as efficient resource use, reduced waste, and environmentally friendly methods, this approach can contribute to responsible consumption and production patterns (SDG 12) (Behera and France 2016). Sustainable coconut-based livestock farming practices can help mitigate climate change by promoting carbon sequestration through coconut trees and implementing climate-resilient farming techniques (SDG 13) (Nair et al.

2018). Integrating livestock within coconut plantations can support biodiversity conservation and land restoration, contributing to the protection of terrestrial ecosystems (SDG 15) (Zoysa and Inoue 2014). Collaboration between the government, the private sector, local communities, and international organizations is essential to realizing the potential of coconut-based livestock farming in achieving the SDGs (SDG 17) (Achmad et al. 2022). By aligning coconut-based livestock farming with these SDGs, Sri Lanka can harness the full potential of its coconut resources while promoting sustainable and inclusive agricultural practices that benefit both people and the planet.

**Figure 4.** Visual concept: contributions of coconut-based livestock farming to SDGs. Source: Figure by authors.

#### **5. Benefits of Coconut-Based Livestock Farming Systems**

Coconut-based farming systems, integrating coconut plantations with livestock and other vegetation, offer a myriad of advantages. They improve livestock nutrition by providing diverse fodder options within the coconut plantation, enhancing animal health (Devendra and Leng 2011). These systems optimize land use by combining grazing and coconut cultivation on the same land, leading to efficient resource utilization and reducing the need for additional grazing areas. Moreover, livestock grazing within the plantation aids in weed and pest control, minimizing the use of herbicides and maintaining pest balance (Nicholls and Altieri 2013). Furthermore, the integration of nitrogen-fixing trees, including gliricidia and shrubs, enhances soil fertility, benefiting coconut trees and other crops (Raveendra et al. 2021). Silvopastoral systems also contribute to carbon sequestration through the excellent CO<sup>2</sup> absorption capabilities of coconut trees and diversified vegetation (Ramachandran Nair et al. 2010). According to Raveendra et al. 2017, carbon stocks in a gliricidia-based mixed cropping system was significantly different compared to that in a mono-crop system. They also promote biodiversity, ecosystem resilience, and improved pest and disease management. Farmers gain multiple income streams from coconut products, livestock, and other agricultural produce, enhancing their financial and energy security. Integrated systems foster climate adaptation by providing a resilient and adaptable farming approach, helping farmers cope with climate-related challenges. They offer a sustainable and integrated agriculture model, delivering numerous environmental, economic, and social benefits to farmers and the surrounding ecosystem (Hernández-Morcillo et al. 2018). In summary, coconut-based livestock farming can contribute to achieving SDG 2, which aims to end hunger, achieve food security, improve nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture.

#### **6. Challenges for Coconut-Based Livestock Farming Systems**

Coconut-based livestock farming systems offer numerous benefits, but also present challenges that require careful attention from farmers and land managers to ensure success and sustainability. Integrating livestock and vegetation within coconut plantations can create competition for vital resources like water, sunlight, and nutrients, necessitating a delicate balance to maintain productivity (Kumar and Kunhamu 2022). Selecting compatible livestock breeds becomes crucial to avoid potential damage to coconut trees and maintain a thriving environment. Managing pests and diseases in this complex system requires vigilant monitoring and timely intervention. Successful implementation demands a deep understanding of agroforestry practices, livestock management, and coconut cultivation, emphasizing

the need for access to proper training and knowledge (Mizik 2021). Long-term planning and investments in planting fodder trees, acquiring suitable livestock, and diligent management are essential for achieving sustainable benefits. Market access and fair prices for coconut and livestock products play a pivotal role in ensuring economic viability (Kaplinsky and Morris 2018). Overcoming land tenure issues and obtaining policy support are vital for encouraging farmers to adopt these integrated systems. Climate variability and environmental risks necessitate climate-resilient strategies. Additionally, labor-intensive management is required compared to conventional monoculture plantations (Feintrenie et al. 2015). Despite these challenges, with careful planning, training, and management, coconut-based farming systems can flourish, offering a sustainable and resilient agricultural approach that benefits farmers and the environment alike.

#### **7. Conclusions**

Coconut-based livestock farming represents a promising pathway to achieve several SDGs outlined by the United Nations, mainly SDG 2, as well as SDG 8, SDG 12, SDG 13, SDG 15, and SDG 17. By integrating coconut plantations with livestock and other vegetation, this innovative agroforestry approach offers a range of benefits, promoting environmental sustainability, economic growth, and social well-being. Coconut-based livestock farming offers a promising and sustainable approach to agricultural production, combining the benefits of coconut cultivation with livestock rearing. This integrated farming system provides numerous advantages for farmers, the environment, and local communities. By strategically managing coconut plantations alongside livestock, farmers can diversify their income sources and improve overall farm productivity. The system promotes biodiversity by creating diverse habitats for various plant and animal species. By diversifying production and income sources, farmers are better equipped to withstand challenges and ensure the well-being of their communities. Overall, coconut-based livestock farming represents a holistic and ecologically sound approach to agriculture in Sri Lanka. By capitalizing on the strengths of both coconut cultivation and livestock rearing, this integrated farming system offers a pathway to sustainable and prosperous farming practices. As the world faces increasing demands for food production and environmental stewardship, coconut-based livestock farming stands as a viable model to support the livelihoods of farmers while conserving natural resources for future generations. Further research and development programs are very important in determining the most suitable crop species and suitable livestock species for each system.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, T.D.N. and A.J.A.; Methodology, S.S.U.; Validation, A.J.A. and N.S.D.; Formal Analysis, T.D.N.; Investigation, S.S.U.; Writing—Original Draft Preparation, T.D.N. and S.S.U.; Writing—Review and Editing, A.J.A. and N.S.D.; Supervision, A.J.A.; Visualization, T.D.N. and S.S.U.; Project Administration, A.J.A. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

**Funding:** This research received no external funding.

**Acknowledgments:** We would like to extend our gratitude to the technical team at the Agronomy Division of the Coconut Research Institute for their valuable contributions. We also want to express our thanks to the editor and two anonymous reviewers for providing constructive feedback and valuable comments.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.

#### **References**


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