**Challenges for Zero Hunger (SDG 2): Links with Other SDGs**

**Ramona Lile, Monica Ocnean and Ioana Mihaela Balan**

#### **1. Introduction: SDG 2 and Its Integral Connection to the Sustainable Development Goals Framework**

Adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in September 2015, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) comprise a comprehensive framework of 17 interconnected objectives (SDG 1: No Poverty, SDG 2: Zero Hunger, SDG 3: Good Health and Well-being, SDG 4: Quality Education, SDG 5: Gender Equality, SDG 6: Clean Water and Sanitation, SDG 7: Affordable and Clean Energy, SDG 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, SDG 10: Reduced Inequality, SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities, SDG 12: Responsible Consumption and Production, SDG 13: Climate Action, SDG 14: Life Below Water, SDG 15: Life on Land, SDG 16: Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions, SDG 17: Partnerships to achieve the Goals). These goals collectively address some of the most important global challenges, spanning from poverty and hunger to inequality, climate change, and sustainable economic growth. The inception of the SDGs can be traced back to the 2012 United Nations Summit on Sustainable Development, commonly referred to as Rio+20, which underscored the need for a unified approach to tackle these pressing issues (UN The 17 Goals n.d.; Otto-Zimmermann 2012).

The process of crafting the SDGs was characterized by inclusivity, involving governments, the private sector, civil society, and diverse stakeholders on a global scale. This collaborative endeavor encompassed extensive consultations, negotiations, and rigorous studies to pinpoint critical concerns and delineate specific objectives to combat them. The culmination of this process was the unanimous adoption of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals in September 2015 by the United Nations General Assembly, serving as a clarion call for collective action to achieve these aims by 2030 (UN Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development n.d.).

One pivotal goal within this framework is SDG 2: Zero Hunger, which is intricately intertwined with all the other SDGs, forming a nexus of interdependence that underscores the significance of these connections. SDG 2 is dedicated to eliminating hunger and malnutrition, fostering sustainable agriculture, and uplifting the livelihoods of smallholder farmers, particularly in developing nations. The attainment of SDG 2 necessitates a holistic approach that addresses an array of challenges, from the far-reaching impacts of climate change to the ramifications of rapid urbanization and disparities in resource distribution. To realize this goal, the imperative lies in nurturing resilient food systems, propelling technological innovations, and fostering cross-border collaborations (UN Goal 2: Zero Hunger n.d.; Cohen 2017; Inter-Agency and Expert Group on Sustainable Development Goal Indicators (IAEG-SDGs) n.d.).

The interconnectedness of SDG 2 with the entire spectrum of SDGs is undeniable and bears immense importance (Wong 2021). For instance, the elimination of poverty, the enhancement of healthcare and education, and the advancement of gender equality are all integral to ensuring food security and eradicating malnutrition. Similarly, efforts to combat climate change, promote sustainable consumption and production, and enhance partnerships across sectors are all enablers of achieving SDG 2. By simultaneously addressing the multifaceted challenges within these interconnected goals, SDG 2 assumes a central role in fostering a world characterized by equity, resilience, and sustainability (Dörg˝o et al. 2018a; Guachalla 2023).

The SDGs provide a visionary blueprint for confronting multifarious global challenges through collective action (UN Resolution Adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017 n.d.; Wong 2021). Among these, SDG 2 stands as a linchpin, intricately woven into the fabric of all other goals. By synergistically addressing poverty, health, education, inequality, climate change, and more, while championing sustainable agricultural practices and inclusive development, SDG 2 serves as a lighthouse, guiding humanity towards a more just, prosperous, and sustainable future.

#### **2. Methodology**

The information provided in this chapter draws upon an extensive analysis of both peer-reviewed literature and grey literature. A comprehensive exploration of relevant publications was conducted across renowned databases, namely Google Scholar, Scopus, Institute of Scientific Information (ISI), and the Scientific Citation Index (SCI) Web of Science. This chapter extensively considers international literature, encompassing a total of 131 peer-reviewed and grey literature studies. Of this total, three publications were authored by the authors. The time span covered by the chosen papers was open-ended; however, all the studies featured in this review maintained a focus on SDGs.

The search process employed keywords, such as "SDG 2: Zero Hunger", "SDGs", "policies and programs addressing the causes of hunger", and "shortcomings and limitations of SDGs". The ensuing dataset facilitated the identification of key themes aligned with the objectives delineated in this chapter.

Probing the intricate web of connections between SDG 2: Zero Hunger and the remaining 16 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) required a systematic analysis to distinguish direct and indirect links. By scrutinizing the objectives, underlying principles, and underlying interdependencies of each SDG, a comprehensive understanding of their intricate relationships emerged.

The identification of direct connections between SDG 2 and other goals was relatively straightforward. In cases where the language of the SDGs explicitly mentioned hunger, food security, or nutrition, a direct relationship was evident. For instance, the alignment between SDG 1: No Poverty and SDG 2 was palpable, as poverty often underpins hunger and malnutrition. Similarly, SDG 3: Good Health and Well-being explicitly ties nutrition to health, solidifying a direct link between these goals.

Indirect links were discerned by analyzing the synergies, shared objectives, and common principles between SDG 2 and other goals. Indicators that signaled a broader connection included themes, such as sustainable production, responsible consumption, equitable access to resources, environmental conservation, and economic growth. For example, the resonance between SDG 2 and SDG 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth was clarified by the shared emphasis on enhancing livelihoods, while the alignment between SDG 2 and SDG 12: Responsible Consumption and Production was revealed through their mutual focus on sustainable resource utilization.

In cases where multiple SDGs addressed overlapping themes, a holistic perspective was applied to ascertain the nature of the connection. For instance, while the link between SDG 2 and SDG 13: Climate Action was not overt, it emerged as a crucial interrelation when considering the impact of climate change on food systems and agricultural productivity.

Furthermore, recognizing the systemic nature of the SDGs, the interconnectedness between goals was assessed through a perspective of sustainability. Goals promoting education, gender equality, clean energy, and strong institutions were identified as underpinning the foundation for achieving SDG 2 (Otto-Zimmermann 2012). These indirect relationships became evident as the pursuit of these goals contributed to enhancing food security, sustainable agriculture, and equitable access to resources.

The identification of direct and indirect connections between SDG 2: Zero Hunger and the 16 other SDGs was a process of meticulous analysis, considering explicit mentions, shared objectives, thematic alignments, and holistic sustainability perspectives. Also, the concrete examples of good practices and innovations in the field of sustainable food and agriculture, as well as related fields, identified in this chapter, demonstrate how SDG 2: Zero Hunger can be achieved through integrated and innovative solutions.

This comprehensive approach clarified the intricate fabric of interdependencies. Analyzing the targets of each SDG separately, we identified common key elements that were considered relevant in presenting the link between SDG 2: Zero Hunger and the other SDGs.

#### **3. Characteristics and Mutual Key Elements of Links between SDG 2: Zero Hunger and Other SDGs**

#### *3.1. The Link between SDG 1 and SDG 2*

The major challenge in the link between SDG 2 and SDG 1 lies in addressing the inseparable problem of global poverty and hunger. This direct connection is crucial for resolving a complex dilemma. SDG 1 and SDG 2 are closely intertwined, and achieving their objectives can contribute to building a more sustainable, equitable, and prosperous world (Pakkan et al. 2023; UN Resolution Adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017 n.d.).

There is a direct link between SDG 1: No Poverty and SDG 2: Zero Hunger. Understanding this link is important in addressing the inseparable problem of global poverty and hunger. SDG 1 and SDG 2 are directly interconnected, and achieving their goals can help achieve a more sustainable, equitable, and prosperous world (Figure 1).

**Figure 1.** Mutual key elements of SDG 1 and SDG 2. Source: Figure by authors.

Poverty and hunger are often interconnected and form a vicious circle. People living in poverty are often unable to secure the necessary daily food, exacerbating malnutrition and health problems. At the same time, people suffering from malnutrition and food-related illnesses are often too sick or weak to work and support themselves, which can lead to poverty (Pakkan et al. 2023; Pradhan et al. 2017).

Therefore, reducing poverty and hunger is an interrelated and essential goal to achieve sustainable development (Box 1). Improving access to nutritious and sustainable food can help reduce poverty by increasing the productivity and incomes of farmers and others in the food sector, as well as creating jobs in the sector (Guang-Wen et al. 2023; Tremblay et al. 2020). Poverty reduction can also help increase access to food by increasing the purchasing power of the poor (Inter-Agency and Expert Group on Sustainable Development Goal Indicators (IAEG-SDGs) n.d.; UN Global SDG Indicators Database n.d.; Janoušková et al. 2018).

**Box 1.** Interlinked actions to reduce hunger and poverty.


#### *3.2. The Link between SDG 2 and SDG 3*

The challenges in the link between SDG 2: Zero Hunger and SDG 3: Good Health and Well-being lie in the intricate interplay between adequate food, nutrition, and overall health. The essential relationship between these goals underscores that

hunger and undernutrition can adversely impact health and immunity (Guang-Wen et al. 2023; Tremblay et al. 2020). The challenge emerges from orchestrating a harmonious synergy between these two goals to optimize overall health and well-being while effectively curbing hunger and malnutrition (Pakkan et al. 2023; Pradhan et al. 2017).

Adequate food and nutrition are essential for people's health and well-being, and hunger and undernutrition can adversely affect health and immunity (FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO 2020).

Therefore, promoting adequate nutrition and sustainable food production can significantly contribute to improving people's health and well-being and achieving SDG 3 (Figure 2).

**Figure 2.** Mutual key elements of SDG 2 and SDG 3. Source: Figure by authors.

Achieving SDG 2 and SDG 3 is closely and directly linked, as adequate food and nutrition are essential for health and well-being, and hunger and undernutrition can adversely affect health.

SDG 3 aims to ensure universal access to health services and promote physical and mental health, and adequate nutrition plays an important role in achieving this goal. Nutritious and balanced foods provide the body with the nutrients it needs to prevent diseases associated with poor nutrition, such as malnutrition, obesity, and diabetes (FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO 2020).

On the other hand, malnutrition and undernutrition can affect a person's immune system, making them more vulnerable to disease and infection. By ensuring access to nutritious and balanced food, you can help boost immunity and prevent disease.

SDG 2 aims to reduce the number of people suffering from hunger and malnutrition by promoting access to nutritious and sustainable food. In addition, SDG 2 aims to improve food production by using sustainable agricultural practices and by promoting an efficient and responsible food system (Box 2).

**Box 2.** Interlinked actions to reduce hunger and to increase health and well-being.


#### *3.3. The Link between SDG 2 and SGD 4*

There is an indirect link between SDG 2: Zero Hunger and SDG 4: Quality Education. The challenges in the connection between SDG 2: Zero Hunger and SDG 4: Quality Education arise from the intricate indirect relationship between these goals. While promoting access to quality education can indirectly contribute to achieving SDG 2 by enhancing knowledge about healthy eating, food production, and sustainable practices, the effectiveness of this link relies on several factors. Education's potential to empower individuals to make informed choices regarding food and support sustainable agriculture practices faces challenges in ensuring widespread access to quality education (Pradhan et al. 2017). The alignment between SDG 2 and SDG 4 depends on addressing barriers to education, such as limited access, gender disparities, and economic constraints.

While education can equip people with practical skills related to food cultivation, preparation, and sustainable farming techniques, translating these skills into actionable steps to reduce hunger necessitates overcoming barriers, like limited resources and infrastructure. Moreover, promoting gender equality through education can positively influence access to food, but this requires addressing deeply ingrained societal norms and overcoming gender-related barriers to education (Guang-Wen et al. 2023; Balan et al. 2022a; Tremblay et al. 2020). Similarly, while education's role in reducing poverty has the potential to enhance access to food, overcoming systemic economic challenges and ensuring equitable educational

opportunities are essential components of bridging the gap between these goals. Thus, while the link between SDG 2 and SDG 4 holds potential, the challenges lie in addressing disparities in education access, gender equality, and poverty reduction to effectively contribute to hunger alleviation and sustainable food practices (Di Fabio and Rosen 2020; Pradhan et al. 2017).

Promoting access to quality education can contribute to achieving SDG 2 and reducing hunger in several ways. Education can help people understand the importance of healthy eating and how food is grown and processed. Thus, people can make informed choices when it comes to food and support sustainable food and agricultural practices that can help achieve SDG 2 (Figure 3).

**Figure 3.** Mutual key elements of SDG 2 and SDG 4. Source: Figure by authors.

Promoting access to quality education can significantly contribute to achieving SDG 2 and reducing hunger by raising awareness, developing skills and competences, promoting gender equality, and reducing poverty. Education can help people learn practical skills, such as growing vegetables and fruit, preparing nutritious food, and using sustainable farming techniques. These skills can help people sustainably feed their families and communities and help achieve SDG 2. Education can help promote gender equality, which can have a positive impact on access to food. In many communities, women grow food and prepare food, and education can help increase their chances of accessing resources and becoming leaders in their community (Pakkan et al. 2023).

Education can help reduce poverty, which can have a direct impact on access to food. People who have access to education are more likely to find a well-paying job and improve their financial situation, which can enable them to buy more nutritious food and feed their families in a more sustainable way (Box 3).

**Box 3.** Interlinked actions to reduce hunger and to increase quality education.


#### *3.4. The Link between SDG 2 and SGD 5*

There is an indirect link between SDG 2: Zero Hunger and SDG 5: Gender Equality. The challenges in the connection between SDG 2: Zero Hunger and SDG 5: Gender Equality stem from the intricate indirect relationship that relies on addressing gender disparities and empowering women. While gender equality is essential for achieving SDG 2: Zero Hunger, challenges arise in transforming this linkage into tangible outcomes.

Women's pivotal role in agriculture and food production, coupled with limited access to resources and technology, presents a challenge in bridging the gap between gender equality and hunger alleviation (Hoddinott and Haddad 1995). While promoting gender equality can facilitate women's access to resources and technology for improved agricultural activities and food production, addressing deeply rooted gender norms and overcoming systemic barriers to women's empowerment are critical. The vulnerability of women to hunger and malnutrition due to limited access to food, healthcare, and gender discrimination underscores the need for gender-sensitive strategies. However, translating gender equality initiatives into reduced hunger demands navigating the complexity of societal perceptions and deeply ingrained biases. Ensuring women's participation in decision-making processes is vital, yet challenges lie in dismantling existing power structures and fostering an inclusive environment (FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO 2020).

Promoting gender equality holds the potential to significantly contribute to SDG 2 by enhancing food production and reducing hunger and malnutrition. Nevertheless, challenges revolve around confronting traditional norms and biases that hinder women's access to resources, healthcare, education, and decision-making processes (Di Fabio and Rosen 2020). Achieving true gender equality requires addressing deeply rooted systemic issues and enacting comprehensive policies that empower women economically, socially, and politically. Consequently, the success of the link between SDG 2 and SDG 5 lies in dismantling barriers that restrict women's potential, fostering inclusivity, and creating an enabling environment that transcends stereotypes and biases to effectively reduce hunger and improve food security (Lucato et al. 2018).

Gender equality is important for achieving SDG 2 for several reasons (Figure 4).

**Figure 4.** Mutual key elements of SDG 2 and SDG 5. Source: Figure by authors.

Women play a key role in agriculture and food production because, in many countries, women are responsible for agricultural work and food production. However, they often have limited access to the resources needed to develop their agricultural activities and improve their food production. Promoting gender equality can ensure that women have access to the resources and technology needed to

develop their agricultural activities and improve their food production. This can contribute to achieving SDG 2 by increasing food production and reducing hunger.

Women are more affected by hunger and malnutrition, because women are often more vulnerable to hunger and malnutrition than men. This is due to several factors, such as limited access to food and medical services, as well as gender discrimination. Promoting gender equality can ensure that women have access to food and health services, as well as equal opportunities in education and the labor market. This can contribute to achieving SDG 2 by reducing hunger and malnutrition.

Women's participation in decision-making processes is very important, because promoting gender equality can ensure that women have a greater role in decision-making processes related to agricultural policy and food production. This can help create more effective policies to reduce hunger and malnutrition (Guang-Wen et al. 2023; Tremblay et al. 2020).

Promoting gender equality can significantly contribute to achieving SDG 2 by increasing food production and reducing hunger and malnutrition (Box 4). Ensuring access to the necessary resources and technology for women, as well as promoting equal participation of women in decision-making processes, can contribute to the development of more effective policies and programs to reduce hunger and undernutrition (Pakkan et al. 2023).

**Box 4.** Interlinked actions to reduce hunger and to increase gender equality.


#### *3.5. The Link between SDG 2 and SGD 6*

There is an indirect link between SDG 2: Zero Hunger and SDG 6: Clean water and sanitation. The challenges in the connection between SDG 2: Zero Hunger and SDG 6: Clean Water and Sanitation arise from the intricate interplay between food security and water access. While the indirect link between these goals highlights their mutual influence, challenges emerge in ensuring holistic solutions to food and water-related issues. Recognizing the role of clean water and proper hygiene in food production underscores the importance of access to clean water in enhancing agricultural productivity (Dora et al. 2015; Hutton and Haller 2004). Yet, challenges exist in guaranteeing sufficient and safe water sources for irrigation, especially in regions where water scarcity prevails. Addressing this challenge necessitates innovative water management strategies and technologies that can sustainably support agriculture.

Furthermore, the interrelation between access to clean water and foodborne illnesses poses a challenge in reducing the risks of malnutrition and disease transmission. Ensuring clean water sources for agriculture and proper hygiene practices is crucial to prevent the contamination of food and waterborne diseases. However, overcoming infrastructural and awareness-related hurdles to ensure the availability of clean water in rural areas and promoting hygienic practices remains a challenge in many regions (Pakkan et al. 2023).

The prevention of conflicts over water resources is another challenge embedded in the linkage between SDG 2 and SDG 6. As water scarcity intensifies globally, competition for water resources becomes more pronounced, particularly in regions where water availability is limited. While clean water is essential for food production, challenges emerge in maintaining equitable access to water resources for both agriculture and domestic use (Simonovic 2002). Collaborative efforts are needed to establish effective water management frameworks that promote sustainability and prevent disputes over water allocation.

The success of the connection between SDG 2 and SDG 6 hinges on addressing challenges associated with water scarcity, contamination, and equitable water resource distribution. Collaborative approaches that involve governments, local communities, and international organizations are crucial for devising and implementing water management strategies that ensure clean water access for agriculture, promote proper hygiene practices, and prevent conflicts over water resources. This demands a comprehensive and integrated approach that recognizes the intricate relationship between food security and water availability, while navigating challenges specific to each region's context.

Understanding this link is important for addressing food and water security

issues in an integrated manner (Figure 5).

**Figure 5.** Mutual key elements of SDG 2 and SDG 6. Source: Figure by authors.

Clean water and hygiene are essential for food production. This is because water is one of the most important factors for agriculture and food production. Farmers need water to irrigate crops and feed animals. Ensuring access to clean water and adequate sanitation services can help increase food production and reduce hunger (Box **??**).

Access to clean water and proper hygiene can help prevent foodborne illness. Contaminated water can contribute to the transmission of foodborne illness and increase the risk of malnutrition. By promoting access to clean water and proper hygiene, the risk of disease and malnutrition can be reduced.

This can help prevent conflicts over water resources. This is especially important in areas where water resources are limited. Access to clean water and adequate sanitation services can help prevent conflicts and promote the sustainable use of water resources.

**Box 5.** Interlinked actions to reduce hunger and to increase access to clean water and sanitation.

<sup>–</sup> *In rural Africa, many farmers rely on subsistence agriculture, and water is a crucial factor in this activity. Providing access to drinking water sources and irrigation technologies can support increased agricultural production and food security in poor regions of Africa (Mbatha et al. 2021).*

<sup>–</sup> *In some parts of Nigeria, children are missing out on going to school because of water-related diseases. For example, diarrhea and water-borne infections can prevent children from learning and developing intellectual skills. By providing clean water and adequate sanitation services, disease can be reduced and, thus, education and economic development can be supported in these communities (Ali 2022).*


#### *3.6. The Link between SDG 2 and SGD 7*

There is an important indirect link between SDG 2: Zero Hunger and SDG 7: Clean and Affordable Energy. This link mainly concerns the need to use energy sustainably to support food production and improve access to food sustainably.

The challenges embedded in the connection between SDG 2: Zero Hunger and SDG 7: Clean and Affordable Energy revolve around the intricate balance between energy sustainability and food security. While the indirect link highlights the significance of utilizing energy resources efficiently to support food production and distribution, several challenges need to be addressed to achieve these objectives sustainably. The requirement for energy in various stages of the food supply chain, from cultivation and processing to transportation and storage, underscores the importance of accessing clean and affordable energy sources. However, challenges emerge in promoting the adoption of sustainable energy solutions, such as solar or wind energy, across all sectors of the food system. Overcoming financial and infrastructural barriers to integrating renewable energy technologies into food production processes remains a challenge in many regions.

Moreover, ensuring equitable access to clean and affordable energy resources is crucial for improving access to food sustainably. Challenges arise in remote and underserved areas, where energy infrastructure is lacking, hindering efficient food storage and preservation, as well as agricultural production processes (Singh et al. 2018). Addressing these challenges requires collaborative efforts between governments, the private sector, and international organizations to develop and implement energy infrastructure projects tailored to the specific needs of these communities.

The link between SDG 2 and SDG 7 also encompasses the imperative of reducing food loss. While access to clean and affordable energy can enhance food storage and transportation systems, challenges exist in ensuring the widespread adoption of energy-efficient technologies that minimize food loss and waste. This demands investment in innovative solutions and awareness-raising initiatives to promote sustainable practices across the food supply chain (Pakkan et al. 2023).

Ultimately, addressing the challenges within the connection between SDG 2 and SDG 7 requires a holistic approach that accounts for energy sustainability, food security, and equitable access. Collaborative endeavors are needed to foster technological innovation, policy development, and financial support for clean and affordable energy solutions, enabling sustainable food production, reducing food loss, and enhancing access to nutritious food (Singh et al. 2018; Di Fabio and Rosen 2020). This intricate relationship underscores the need for integrated strategies that acknowledge the potential of sustainable energy to contribute to achieving SDG 2, while also considering the diverse challenges specific to various regions and contexts (Figure 6).

**Figure 6.** Mutual key elements of SDG 2 and SDG 7. Source: Figure by authors.

Food production requires energy, for example, to irrigate crops, to process and package food, or to transport it to consumers. Using energy from sustainable sources, such as solar or wind energy, can reduce greenhouse gas emissions and help ensure sustainable food production.

Access to clean and affordable energy can improve access to food by improving food storage and preservation, by increasing the efficiency of production processes and by improving access to refrigeration systems in rural and peripheral areas (Singh et al. 2018). Access to energy can help reduce food loss by improving the efficiency of refrigeration systems, by improving transportation systems, and by improving access to food storage and preservation systems.

So, the use of energy from sustainable sources can help ensure sustainable food production and reduce food loss, which can help achieve SDG 2. Also, access to clean and affordable energy can improve access to food and can help reduce hunger and malnutrition (Box 6).

**Box 6.** Interlinked actions to reduce hunger and to increase access to clean and affordable energy.


#### *3.7. The Link between SDG 2 and SGD 8*

There is an indirect link between SDG 2: Zero Hunger and SDG 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth. This link refers to the fact that reducing poverty and hunger can contribute to economic growth and the creation of decent jobs. The agricultural sector plays an important role in the global economy, and increasing productivity and market access for farmers in rural areas can contribute to economic growth and the creation of decent jobs (Guang-Wen et al. 2023).

The challenges inherent in the relationship between SDG 2: Zero Hunger and SDG 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth encompass intricate socio-economic dynamics that require careful consideration. The indirect link between these two goals underscores the potential of reducing poverty and hunger to catalyze economic growth and the emergence of decent employment opportunities. While the connection emphasizes the role of the agricultural sector in this process, a range of challenges must be addressed to realize this potential comprehensively (Tremblay et al. 2020).

Agriculture's pivotal role in the global economy highlights the significance of enhancing productivity and market access for rural farmers. Yet, challenges persist in ensuring the equitable distribution of resources, technology, and training, particularly in marginalized regions. Overcoming barriers to accessing markets, securing fair prices, and navigating supply chains remain uphill tasks, especially for small-scale farmers.

Investments in agriculture and related infrastructure are pivotal for driving job creation in rural areas. However, challenges arise in securing adequate funding and ensuring these investments are sustainable, considering the varied needs and contexts of different regions. Moreover, the need for infrastructure development extends beyond agriculture, encompassing transportation, storage, and processing facilities, all of which require careful planning and execution.

Addressing malnutrition and hunger's impact on productivity necessitates not only improved access to nutritious food but also holistic health and wellness interventions. Overcoming challenges in delivering comprehensive healthcare services, particularly in remote areas, is pivotal for enhancing workforce productivity and contributing to economic growth (Pakkan et al. 2023).

In the food industry, while job opportunities span agriculture, processing, distribution, and food services, challenges arise in ensuring decent working conditions, fair wages, and worker rights. Tackling issues, such as informal employment, gender disparities, and poor labor practices, requires collaborative efforts between governments, businesses, and civil society.

To leverage the connection between SDG 2 and SDG 8 effectively, an integrated approach is essential. This approach should encompass policy measures that promote equitable resource distribution, technological innovation, and capacity-building initiatives for farmers, particularly in marginalized areas. Equally crucial is investing in education and skill development, which can empower individuals to access decent employment opportunities in the food industry (Guang-Wen et al. 2023; Tremblay et al. 2020). Furthermore, addressing gender inequalities and promoting sustainable labor practices are vital steps toward achieving both SDG 2 and SDG 8, fostering a symbiotic relationship between improved food security and economic growth (Figure 7).

**Figure 7.** Mutual key elements of SDG 2 and SDG 8. Source: Figure by authors.

Investments in the agricultural sector and related infrastructure, such as irrigation, transport, storage, and processing, can contribute to job creation in rural areas.

Malnutrition and hunger can reduce people's productivity and work capacity. Therefore, reducing these problems can contribute to increased productivity and economic growth (Box 7).

The food industry can provide job opportunities in a variety of areas, such as agriculture, food processing, distribution, and food services (Guang-Wen et al. 2023; Tremblay et al. 2020).

**Box 7.** Interlinked actions to reduce hunger and to increase access to decent work and economic growth.


#### *3.8. The Link between SDG 2 and SGD 9*

There is a direct link between SDG 2: Zero Hunger and SDG 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure. This link refers to the fact that investment in infrastructure can help increase productivity and efficiency in the agricultural sector, which can help reduce poverty and hunger. Investments in agricultural infrastructure, such as irrigation, storage, transportation, and food processing, can help improve agricultural production and efficiency.

The challenges tied to the interconnection between SDG 2: Zero Hunger and SDG 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure reflect a multifaceted landscape that demands comprehensive attention. The direct link between these goals underscores the potential of infrastructure investments and agricultural innovation to bolster productivity, efficiency, and economic growth, thereby reducing poverty and hunger. While this nexus holds promise, several challenges warrant consideration to harness its benefits effectively (Guang-Wen et al. 2023; Tremblay et al. 2020).

Investing in agricultural infrastructure, encompassing irrigation, storage, transportation, and food processing, is pivotal for enhancing agricultural output. Nonetheless, challenges arise in ensuring equitable access to these resources, especially among marginalized communities. Overcoming barriers related to resource allocation, technological diffusion, and regulatory frameworks is crucial for achieving equitable agricultural development.

Innovation in agriculture, ranging from advanced technologies to improved seed varieties, can amplify productivity and efficiency. However, disparities in technological access and adoption hinder progress, particularly in resource-constrained regions. Bridging the technological gap and ensuring knowledge dissemination are imperative to leverage innovation's potential for reducing hunger and poverty (UN Progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals n.d.).

Infrastructure investments, including transportation and connectivity enhancement, have the capacity to generate employment and economic growth in rural areas. Yet, realizing these benefits necessitates overcoming logistical challenges, inadequate funding, and ensuring that infrastructure development aligns with local needs.

Access to technology, such as digital platforms and mobile phones, has the potential to empower farmers with market information and better pricing mechanisms. However, challenges of digital divide, lack of digital literacy, and inadequate connectivity must be addressed to enable equitable access to these tools and ensure farmers' effective integration into modern markets (Pakkan et al. 2023).

To maximize the synergistic relationship between SDG 2 and SDG 9, holistic strategies are essential. These strategies should prioritize inclusive infrastructure development, ensuring that marginalized communities benefit from improved transportation, storage, and processing facilities. Additionally, fostering innovation requires initiatives that provide equitable access to technological advancements and promote knowledge sharing among farmers. Collaboration between governments, private sector entities, and civil society is pivotal for creating an enabling environment that supports both agricultural development and technological innovation, ultimately contributing to the achievement of SDG 2 and SDG 9 objectives (Figure 8).

**Figure 8.** Key mutual elements of SDG 2 and SDG 9. Source: Figure by authors.

Innovation in agriculture, such as the development of new agricultural technologies or more productive seeds, can increase efficiency and productivity in the agricultural sector, which can help reduce poverty and hunger. Investments in infrastructure, such as building roads, bridges, and transport lines, can help create jobs and economic growth in rural areas. Access to technology, such as mobile phones or online platforms, can help farmers sell their products at better prices and access market and price information (Box 8).

**Box 8.** Interlinked actions to reduce hunger and to increase industry, innovation and infrastructure levels.


#### *3.9. The Link between SDG 2 and SGD 10*

There is an indirect link between SDG 2: Zero Hunger and SDG 10: Reducing Inequalities. Poverty and inequality are major contributors to hunger and malnutrition. At the same time, hunger and malnutrition can exacerbate inequality and poverty.

The interconnectedness between SDG 2: Zero Hunger and SDG 10: Reducing Inequalities entails multifaceted challenges that underscore the intricate relationship between hunger, poverty, and inequality. While an indirect link exists between these goals, their symbiotic nature underscores the imperative of addressing them in tandem. Hunger and malnutrition are both consequences and causes of inequality and poverty, disproportionately impacting marginalized groups such as those residing in rural areas or extreme deprivation. Resolving this predicament necessitates concerted efforts to address challenges tied to access, resources, and living standards for disadvantaged communities (UN Progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals n.d.).

Inequalities can engender food inaccessibility, rendering it unaffordable for impoverished populations who lack the means to secure nutritious meals or cultivate their sustenance due to limited resources and land access (FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO 2021). Reducing inequalities holds the key to mitigating hunger and malnutrition by ensuring equitable access to food and essential health services for all, regardless of socioeconomic status. Correspondingly, combating hunger can be a catalyst for reducing inequality, uplifting living conditions, and enhancing resource availability for marginalized communities.

Harmonizing efforts to alleviate hunger, malnutrition, and inequality is pivotal to fostering a society where all individuals can access nourishing sustenance and a decent standard of living. The convergence of SDG 2 and SDG 10 objectives signifies a collaborative approach that leverages policy interventions, resource allocation, and community engagement to effect transformative change. Empowering marginalized communities through equitable access to food, health services, education, and opportunities is a fundamental step toward realizing the vision of eradicating hunger and inequalities (FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO 2021). Thus, intertwining the pursuit of SDG 2 and SDG 10 yields a synergistic approach that resonates with the essence of sustainable development (Figure 9).

Hunger and malnutrition disproportionately affect disadvantaged communities, such as those in rural areas or those living in extreme poverty. These communities need support and investment to gain access to food and improve their living standards.

**Figure 9.** Mutual key elements of SDG 2 and SDG 10. Source: Figure by authors.

Inequality can make food unaffordable for some people, especially those living in poverty. They cannot afford to buy nutritious food or grow their own food due to lack of resources and access to land (FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO 2020).

Reducing inequality can help reduce hunger and malnutrition by improving access to food and health services for all people, regardless of social position or income. Fighting hunger can help reduce inequality by improving living standards and access to resources for disadvantaged communities (Box 9).

**Box 9.** Interlinked actions to reduce hunger and inequalities.


#### *3.10. The Link between SDG 2 and SGD 11*

SDG 11: Sustainable cities and communities is also directly linked to SDG 2: Zero Hunger. The goal of SDG 11 is to make cities and human settlements more inclusive, safer, more resilient, and more sustainable. Urbanization and the growth

of cities have an impact on food systems and agriculture. As cities expand, the agricultural space around them shrinks, which can lead to a decrease in local food production and an increase in dependence on imports. Urbanization can also lead to increased consumption of processed and fast food, which can be less healthy and less nutritious than fresh, local food.

The interconnection between SDG 2: Zero Hunger and SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities presents a complex tapestry of challenges emanating from the dynamic relationship between urbanization, food systems, and sustainable development. The symbiotic bond between these goals accentuates the intricate interplay between urban growth and food security. Urbanization's expansion and city development hold implications for agriculture and food systems, often leading to diminished local food production due to shrinking agricultural spaces and escalating reliance on imports. Concurrently, urbanization fosters an upsurge in the consumption of processed and fast foods, potentially compromising nutritional quality (FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO 2020).

The nexus of SDG 2 and SDG 11 centers on ensuring urban communities' access to healthy, safe, and nutritious food. In this vein, championing urban agriculture and fortifying food storage and distribution infrastructure are pivotal shared aspirations. Moreover, both goals underscore the imperative of judiciously managing natural resources. Urban agriculture can counterbalance food imports, optimize land use, and bolster local economies by generating jobs in agriculture and associated sectors. This aligns with SDG 2 and SDG 11 objectives of fostering economic growth and sustainable development.

Furthermore, the objectives of sustainable urbanization and appropriate resource management are underscored by urban agriculture's potential to curtail greenhouse gas emissions via reduced food transport and enhanced energy efficiency in farming practices. Yet, the intrinsic linkage between SDG 2 and SDG 11 confronts challenges, particularly the negative impact of unchecked urban development on soil, water, and air quality that can undermine agricultural productivity and food quality (Nilsson et al. 2016).

Thus, the link between SDG 2 and SDG 11 resonates with joint actions to promote resilient, sustainable, and inclusive communities. A holistic urban development strategy encompassing improved infrastructure, transport systems, and responsible urban planning can facilitate food access and distribution. To harmonize these goals, initiatives must address both urban challenges and agricultural resilience, thereby forging pathways toward zero hunger and sustainable urban progress (FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO 2020). In essence, the intertwined narratives of

SDG 2 and SDG 11 highlight the confluence of urban transformation and food security, underscoring the need for comprehensive strategies that nurture both thriving communities and nourishing sustenance (Figure 10).

Food security and access to healthy and nutritious food are essential to ensure the health and well-being of urban communities. In many cities around the world, access to fresh, healthy food is limited, and this can lead to health problems, such as obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. Cities also produce a significant amount of food waste and contribute to climate change through greenhouse gas emissions from transportation and the production of processed foods. In this context, urbanization can lead to the increased consumption of processed food and fast food, which can be less healthy and less nutritious than fresh and local food, so SDG 2 and SDG 11 are closely related and have several common elements.

**Figure 10.** Mutual key elements of SDG 2 and SDG 11. Source: Figure by authors.

People in urban environments need access to healthy and safe food, and this is a common goal for both SDG 2 and SDG 11. To achieve this goal, it is important to promote urban agriculture and create adequate infrastructure for food storage and distribution.

SDG 2 and SDG 11 also focus on the sustainable use of natural resources. Urban agriculture can help reduce the dependence on imported food and promote efficient land use in urban areas. SDG 2 and SDG 11 aim to create job opportunities for local communities. Urban agriculture can play an important role in creating new jobs in the agricultural sector and related services. SDG 2 and SDG 11 aim to promote sustainable development and appropriate resource management. Urban agriculture can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions by reducing food transport and increasing energy efficiency in agricultural processes.

Also, improving urban infrastructure, including transport systems, can help facilitate access to food markets and transport food from rural areas to urban areas (FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO 2020).

On the other hand, uncontrolled urban development and pollution can have a negative impact on soil, water, and air quality, which can lead to a decrease in agricultural production and food quality.

There is, therefore, a strong interdependence between SDG 2 and SDG 11, as the sustainable development of cities and urban communities can significantly contribute to reducing hunger and improving food security. At the same time, uncontrolled urban development can lead to a decrease in agricultural production and food quality, which can exacerbate food security problems. Therefore, addressing the issues of sustainable development of cities and urban communities should also include solutions to support the development of the agricultural sector and to improve access to food and food security, so that it can achieve the goal of SDG 2: Zero Hunger and encourage sustainable urban development (Box 10).

**Box 10.** Interlinked actions to reduce hunger and increase the levels of sustainable cities and communities.


#### *3.11. The Link between SDG 2 and SGD 12*

SDG 2: Zero Hunger and SDG 12: Responsible Consumption and Production are directly linked in several ways due to their impact on the environment and natural resources. Sustainable agriculture and responsible production are central to both SDG 2 and SDG 12 (FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO 2020).

The interrelation between SDG 2: Zero Hunger and SDG 12: Responsible Consumption and Production spawns an intricate web of challenges stemming from their shared commitment to environmental sustainability and resource management. The convergence of sustainable agriculture and responsible production echoes in both goals, with sustainable agricultural practices seeking to optimize food production while minimizing environmental repercussions (Salasan and Balan 2022). This duality champions SDG 2 by enhancing food security while safeguarding precious natural resources. Similarly, SDG 12's emphasis on eco-friendly production, reduced emissions, and waste prevention resonates across both goals, advocating for a greener footprint (Balan et al. 2022a).

Promoting prudent natural resource management resonates as a crucial facet in both SDG 2 and SDG 12. This encompasses judicious stewardship of agricultural land, water, and other resources, alongside curbing food and resource wastage. Sustainable resource use can bolster nutritional security, sustainable development, and environmental conservation by curtailing deforestation, preserving biodiversity, and mitigating greenhouse gas emissions (FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO 2020).

Moreover, SDG 12 champions the ethos of sustainable consumption and production, underscored by a drive to minimize food waste. This facet synergizes with SDG 2 by optimizing resource utilization. Enabling a circular economy stands as a shared objective, seeking to curb natural resource consumption through enhanced recycling, reuse, and regeneration. This ethos not only addresses food waste but also elevates resource efficiency, thereby fostering economic growth and employment prospects.

Furthermore, access to clean and sustainable energy forms an instrumental nexus within SDG 2 and SDG 12. The deployment of such energy sources plays a pivotal role in curbing greenhouse gas emissions, averting climate change's detrimental impact on agriculture and food security. Moreover, clean energy catalyzes economic growth, poverty alleviation, and sustainable infrastructure development, thus harmonizing the dual aspirations of both goals.

In summation, the direct link between SDG 2 and SDG 12 navigates the trajectory towards comprehensive sustainability. Nurturing sustainable agriculture, minimizing waste, ensuring food safety, and fostering international collaboration form the keystones to realizing the dual aspirations of these SDGs. This symbiotic relationship underscores the interdependence between eradicating hunger and advancing responsible consumption and production practices, constituting a

dynamic blueprint for a harmonious coexistence of humanity and the environment (Figure 11).

**Figure 11.** Mutual key elements of SDG 2 and SDG 12. Source: Figure by authors.

Sustainable agriculture promotes ecological and resource-efficient agricultural practices that can improve food production while reducing the environmental impact. This can contribute to achieving SDG 2 by increasing food security and nutrition while protecting natural resources. At the same time, responsible production aims at reducing greenhouse gas emissions, responsible use of resources, and waste prevention, all of which have a significant impact on the environment (Nilsson et al. 2016).

Improving natural resource management is another important element of SDG 2 and SDG 12. This relates to the sustainable management of agricultural land, water, and other natural resources, as well as reducing the waste of food and other resources. Sustainable use of resources can support both food and nutrition security and sustainable development by preventing deforestation, conserving biodiversity, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

SDG 12 encourages the development of sustainable consumption and production patterns, including reducing food waste. This can help meet SDG 2 by making more efficient use of available food resources (Balan et al. 2022b).

Promoting the circular economy is also important for both objectives. The circular economy aims to reduce the consumption of natural resources by increasing recycling, reuse, and regeneration. This can help reduce food waste and increase resource efficiency, while supporting economic growth and job creation (Nilsson et al. 2016).

Access to clean and sustainable energy is another important element of SDG 2 and SDG 12. The use of clean and sustainable energy can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions, thus preventing climate change and its impact on agriculture and food security (Box 11). In addition, clean and sustainable energy can support economic development and poverty reduction through job creation and sustainable infrastructure development (Nilsson et al. 2016).

**Box 11.** Interlinked actions to reduce hunger and increase responsible consumption and production.


*3.12. The Link between SDG 2 and SGD 13*

SDG 2: Zero Hunger and SDG 13: Climate Action are two important goals in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and are directly related to each other (Jain and Mishra 2019).

The nexus between SDG 2: Zero Hunger and SDG 13: Climate Action encompasses multifaceted challenges rooted in their shared commitment to sustainable development. The imperative of sustainable agriculture stands as a crucial convergence, as it not only addresses food security but also combats climate change by curbing greenhouse gas emissions through responsible soil management and efficient farming practices. This interlinkage underscores their collective endeavor to propel sustainable agricultural methods and optimal soil stewardship (Nilsson et al. 2016).

Moreover, climate change wields a direct impact on food security by diminishing crop yields and triggering agricultural losses. Consequently, SDG 2 and SDG 13 jointly advocate for adaptive measures that guarantee food security amidst climate fluctuations. This harmonized pursuit underscores the common goal of preserving access to sustenance amid a changing climate landscape (Dörg˝o et al. 2018a).

The detrimental ecological implications of food loss and waste further tie these goals together, as their production and transportation processes contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. In this vein, both SDG 2 and SDG 13 spotlight the necessity of curbing food waste while advocating for a more sustainable food ecosystem (Fuso Nerini et al. 2019).

Renewable energy utilization surfaces as a linchpin in SDG 2 and SDG 13's shared vision. By adopting renewable energy sources, greenhouse gas emissions can be mitigated, underscoring these goals' concerted drive towards sustainable agriculture and climate resilience.

Sustainable agriculture, responsible soil management, climate adaptation, curbing food waste, and embracing renewable energy crystallize the binding threads uniting these goals. Through the prism of these concerted efforts, both SDGs navigate the trajectory towards a harmonious coexistence with nature, fostering food security and environmental preservation in tandem (Figure 12).

**Figure 12.** Mutual key elements of SDG 2 and SDG 13. Source: Figure by authors.

Sustainable agriculture can help combat climate change by helping to reduce greenhouse gas emissions through sustainable soil management and the use of more efficient farming methods. Therefore, SDG 2 and SDG 13 focus on promoting sustainable agricultural practices and effective soil management.

Climate change can affect food security, reducing food production and leading to crop losses. Therefore, SDG 2 and SDG 13 have common goals to help communities adapt to and ensure food security in the face of climate change (Dörg˝o et al. 2018b).

Food loss and food waste contribute to negative impacts on the environment through greenhouse gas emissions generated by production and transport processes. Therefore, SDG 2 and SDG 13 focus on reducing food loss and waste and promoting a more sustainable food system.

Use of renewable energy can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions and combat climate change (Guang-Wen et al. 2023; UN Climate Change 2022). SDG 2 and SDG 13 have common goals to promote the use of renewable energy in agriculture and other sectors.

Thus, it can be concluded that there is a strong and direct link between SDG 2 and SDG 13, which focus on common elements. Sustainable agriculture

and sustainable soil management, adapting to climate change, reducing food loss and waste, and using renewable energy are key elements that illustrate this link (Box 12). By promoting sustainable agricultural practices, effective soil management, adapting to climate change, reducing food loss and waste, and using renewable energy, we can contribute to achieving the common goals of the two SDGs and creating a more sustainable food system that ensures food security, reducing the negative impact on the environment (The Lancet 2019).

**Box 12.** Interlinked actions to reduce hunger and increase climate action.


#### *3.13. The Link between SDG 2 and SGD 14*

SDG 2: Zero Hunger and SDG 14: Life Below Water are two directly interconnected goals that focus on developing a sustainable food system, reducing food insecurity and, for these, protecting marine ecosystems.

The interrelation between SDG 2: Zero Hunger and SDG 14: Life Below Water presents a matrix of challenges intertwined with their shared emphasis on

cultivating sustainable food systems, eradicating food insecurity, and safeguarding marine ecosystems. This symbiotic link underscores the paramount importance of shielding and preserving marine food resources, which are vital for the sustenance of coastal communities and the preservation of marine biodiversity. Herein, SDG 2 and SDG 14 harmoniously champion the safeguarding of marine resources through the adoption of sustainable fishing practices and the mitigation of marine pollution, thereby augmenting global food security (Guang-Wen et al. 2023; Maxim and van der Sluijs 2011).

Aquaculture emerges as a pivotal conduit in the journey towards sustainable food production and resource conservation, as it alleviates the strain on marine resources while bolstering food output. In tandem, SDG 2 and SDG 14 champion sustainable aquaculture practices that uphold the tenets of environmental preservation and marine ecosystem protection (Vilalta et al. 2018).

The perilous implications of marine pollution reverberate across food quality and marine habitat integrity, thereby imperiling food security and biodiversity. By targeting reductions in marine pollution through judicious waste and pollution management practices, SDG 2 and SDG 14 jointly advocate for a healthier marine environment (Ward 2006).

Education and heightened public awareness constitute linchpins in fostering transformative shifts in consumer and producer behaviors, thus fostering a sustainable food system and environment (Sullivan et al. 2018; Stephens et al. 2008; Vilalta et al. 2018). This shared ambition to elevate public understanding and consciousness about food security and marine conservation underscores the conjoined objectives of SDG 2 and SDG 14.

Responsible fishing, sustainable aquaculture, pollution reduction, and public education stand as the bedrocks upon which these goals stand united, envisaging a future of sustenance and prosperity firmly rooted in balanced ecological and human

stewardship (Figure 13).

**Figure 13.** Mutual key elements of SDG 2 and SDG 14. Source: Figure by authors.

Protecting and conserving marine food resources are crucial to ensuring food security for coastal communities and maintaining marine biodiversity. Therefore, SDG 2 and SDG 14 focus on protecting and conserving marine resources by adopting sustainable fishing practices and reducing marine pollution, thereby increasing food security.

Aquaculture is a method of food production that can be used to reduce pressure on marine resources and increase food production (Box 13). Therefore, SDG 2 and SDG 14 have common goals to provide nutritious food, promote sustainable aquaculture practices that respect the principles of environmental conservation, and protect marine ecosystems (Sullivan et al. 2018).

**Box 13.** Interlinked actions to reduce hunger and increase actions on life below water.


Marine pollution can affect food quality and lead to the destruction of marine habitats, thereby affecting food security and biodiversity. SDG 2 and SDG 14, therefore, focus on reducing marine pollution and protecting the marine environment by adopting safer waste and pollution management practices.

Education and public awareness are key to promoting a change in behavior among consumers and producers to promote a more sustainable food system and environment. Therefore, SDG 2 and SDG 14 have common objectives to increase the

level of education and public awareness in relation to issues of food security and the protection of the marine environment (Stephens et al. 2008).

#### *3.14. The Link between SDG 2 and SGD 15*

SDG 2: Zero Hunger and SDG 15: Life on Land are two directly interconnected Sustainable Development Goals that focus on developing a sustainable food system and protecting terrestrial biodiversity.

The interrelation between SDG 2: Zero Hunger and SDG 15: Life on Land unveils a tapestry of challenges interwoven with their shared commitment to forging a sustainable food system and safeguarding terrestrial biodiversity. Soil, a cornerstone of the food system and terrestrial life, stands central within this matrix. SDG 2 and SDG 15 are intrinsically aligned in their pursuit to shield and conserve soil through sustainable agricultural practices while curbing deforestation and activities that foment soil degradation (Maxim and van der Sluijs 2011).

Biodiversity's pivotal role in upholding terrestrial ecosystems and food security underscores the shared purpose of SDG 2 and SDG 15 to preserve biodiversity via sustainable agricultural methods and the safeguarding of natural habitats.

Sustainable agriculture's pivotal importance in realizing SDG 2 and SDG 15 is twofold: alleviating the burden on natural resources and bolstering food production. Hence, SDG 2 and SDG 15 underscore the imperative of sustainable agricultural practices, including the judicious use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers (Maxim and van der Sluijs 2011).

Equally pivotal is the prudent management of natural resources for achieving both SDG 2 and SDG 15. Protection and conservation of resources, such as water, soil, and forests, feature prominently, propelling SDG 2 and SDG 15 to champion improved natural resource management practices that buttress environmental preservation and underpin a sustainable food system.

So, SDG 2 and SDG 15 coalesce to frame a symbiotic interdependence predicated on fashioning a sustainable food system and safeguarding terrestrial biodiversity. The adoptions of sustainable agricultural methodologies, biodiversity protection, astute natural resource stewardship, and soil preservation coalesce as the bedrock of these goals, envisaging a future where the trajectory of humanity is harmonized with the sustenance of both ecosystems and prosperity for all. Consequently, a harmonious collaboration between governments and civil society becomes imperative to concretize these aspirations and usher in an integrated, sustainable era for food security and terrestrial biodiversity (Figure 14).

**Figure 14.** Mutual key elements of SDG 2 and SDG 15. Source: Figure by authors.

Soil is one of the most important elements in the food system and terrestrial biodiversity. Therefore, SDG 2 and SDG 15 focus on protecting and conserving soil through sustainable agricultural practices and avoiding deforestation and other activities that can lead to soil degradation.

Biodiversity is essential for maintaining terrestrial ecosystems and food security. Therefore, SDG 2 and SDG 15 aim to protect biodiversity by adopting sustainable agricultural practices and promoting the conservation of natural habitats (FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO 2022).

Sustainable agriculture is essential to achieving SDG 2 and SDG 15 by reducing pressure on natural resources and increasing food production. Therefore, SDG 2 and SDG 15 focus on promoting sustainable and sustainable agricultural practices, such as reducing the use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers.

Natural resource management is essential to achieving both SDG 2 and SDG 15, by protecting and conserving natural resources, such as water, soil, and forests. Therefore, SDG 2 and SDG 15 aim to adopt better natural resource management practices to protect the environment and support a sustainable food system (Box **??**).

**Box 14.** Interlinked actions to reduce hunger and increase actions on life on land.


#### *3.15. The Link between SDG 2 and SGD 16*

SDG 2: Zero Hunger and SDG 16: Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions are two SDGs that are indirectly interconnected but linked in terms of developing a sustainable food system and ensuring accountable and transparent governance.

The nexus between SDG 2: Zero Hunger and SDG 16: Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions unfolds as a nuanced interplay of challenges and shared aspirations. While indirectly connected, these two goals converge in their dedication to cultivating a sustainable food system and fostering accountable, transparent governance. SDG 2 strives to alleviate food insecurity and ensure universal access to nutritious sustenance, irrespective of social or geographical boundaries. Concurrently, SDG 16 endeavors to nurture social equity, curbing disparities encompassing food accessibility and distribution. Consequently, these goals are interlaced as they collectively pursue the universal provision of wholesome nourishment, irrespective of socioeconomic standing (Dörg˝o et al. 2018b; Otto-Zimmermann 2012).

SDG 16 pivots on fostering effective governance, transparency, and accountability in public resource management and policy formulation. These tenets are pivotal in shaping sustainable, equitable food policies and practices, thus propelling SDG 2 and SDG 16 in tandem towards a food system underpinned by social justice and upheld by the tenets of transparent governance (Cucurachi and Suh 2017).

Concurrently, conflict and instability can sow seeds of food insecurity by disrupting agricultural endeavors, resource access, and mobility (Ben Hassen and El Bilali 2022). SDG 16's emphasis on peace promotion, conflict prevention, and community stabilization dovetails with SDG 2's mission to alleviate food insecurity. These symbiotic efforts, rooted in addressing underlying inequities and social injustices, stand poised to thwart conflict and instability from germinating.

The linchpin of equitable food resource distribution and a holistic approach to food security is responsible, transparent governance. SDG 2 and SDG 16, thus, rally around bolstering institutional and governmental capabilities to facilitate effective food policy formulation and uphold transparent, accountable governance (Otto-Zimmermann 2012).

In synthesis, SDG 2 and SDG 16, though indirectly intertwined, embolden one another in their quest for sustainable development. Shared aspirations of equitable food access, social justice, effective food governance, conflict prevention, and transparent governance stand as the pillars of their confluence. Crafting a sustainable food system and upholding the tenets of transparent governance emerge as pivotal endeavors in achieving these goals. Thus, the union between SDG 2 and SDG 16 marks a pivotal stride towards constructing a more equitable, sustainable global paradigm (Figure 15).

**Figure 15.** Mutual key elements of SDG 2 and SDG 16. Source: Figure by authors.

SDG 2 aims to reduce food insecurity and increase access to food for all, regardless of social or geographical condition. At the same time, SDG 16 aims to promote social justice and reduce inequalities, including in access to food and its distribution. Thus, the two goals are interconnected in their effort to ensure that everyone has access to sufficient and nutritious food, regardless of their social or economic situation.

SDG 16 focuses on promoting effective governance, transparency, and accountability in the management of public resources and public policies. These efforts are essential to develop sustainable and equitable food policies and practices (FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO 2022). Therefore, SDG 2 and SDG 16 complement each other in terms of developing a sustainable food system that promotes social justice and respects the principles of good governance.

Conflict and instability can be causes of food insecurity by affecting food production, access to resources, and mobility (Dörg˝o et al. 2018b; Otto-Zimmermann 2012). Therefore, SDG 16 focuses on promoting peace, preventing conflict, and stabilizing communities, while SDG 2 aims to reduce food insecurity. These efforts complement each other, as conflict and instability can be prevented by addressing underlying inequality and social injustice.

Responsible and transparent governance is essential to ensure the equitable distribution of food resources and an integrated approach to food security (FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO 2022). SDG 2 and SDG 16, therefore, focus on strengthening institutional and governmental capacities to support the development of effective food policies and ensure accountable and transparent governance.

Therefore, SDG 2 and SDG 16 are two indirectly interconnected sustainable development goals and are complementary. They share a common goal of ensuring a more just, equitable, and sustainable world by promoting access to sufficient and nutritious food for all and by strengthening effective and accountable governance. Equitable access to food and social justice, food governance and policy, peace promotion and conflict prevention, and responsible governance are key elements that illustrate the connection between the two SDGs. Developing a sustainable food system and ensuring transparent and accountable governance are essential to achieving these goals (FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO 2022). Promoting access to food and strengthening institutional and government capacities are essential efforts in achieving these goals (Box 15).

**Box 15.** Interlinked actions to reduce hunger and increase levels of peace, justice, and strong institutions.


#### *3.16. The Link between SDG 2 and SGD 17*

SDG 2: Zero Hunger and SDG 17: Partnerships to achieve the Goal are two indirectly linked goals, but they represent one of the most important relations and aim to promote food security and build strong partnerships to achieve the goals.

The interrelation between SDG 2: Zero Hunger and SDG 17: Partnerships to achieve the Goal unveils a paramount association aimed at fostering food security and orchestrating robust collaborations for goal achievement. SDG 17 takes the mantle of mobilizing resources and nurturing alliances to invigorate investments and sustenance for sustainable development, encompassing the fight against food insecurity and malnutrition (Guang-Wen et al. 2023). It also champions innovation in technology and business models to usher in more effective, sustainable food production and distribution. In contrast, SDG 2 is single-minded in its pursuit of curbing food insecurity and heightening access to nourishing sustenance. SDG 17 galvanizes partnerships and cooperation across diverse sectors—the public, private, and civil society—to collectively combat the specters of food insecurity and malnutrition.

Concurrently, SDG 17 underscores the importance of knowledge exchange and propagation of best practices among diverse stakeholders to cultivate sustainable development and an efficacious strategy to address agricultural, food, and nutritional concerns. Thus, SDG 17 and SDG 2, although tangentially linked, synthesize a symbiotic relationship where collaborative endeavors emerge as the bedrock for curtailing food insecurity and malnutrition and propelling the creation of a just, sustainable food system. Mobilizing resources, fostering innovation, intersectoral collaboration, and disseminating knowledge and optimal practices stand as linchpins in this connection, steering the collective journey towards accomplishing sustainable development objectives (Figure 16).

**Figure 16.** Mutual key elements of SDG 2 and SDG 17. Source: Figure by authors.

SDG 17 aims to mobilize resources and develop strong partnerships to ensure increased investment and support for sustainable development, including to combat food insecurity and malnutrition. Also, it aims to promote innovation in the development of technologies and business models to ensure more efficient and sustainable food production and distribution, while SDG 2 focuses on reducing food insecurity and increasing access to nutritious food. SDG 17 encourages partnerships and collaboration across sectors, including the public sector, the private sector, and civil society, to combat food insecurity and malnutrition (FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO 2022).

In the meantime, SDG 17 encourages the exchange of knowledge and good practices between different actors to ensure sustainable development and an effective approach to problems related to agricultural production, food, and nutrition (Box 16).

**Box 16.** Interlinked actions to reduce hunger and enhance partnerships to achieve the goal.


#### **4. One Goal, Many Results: Discussions on the Role of SDG 2: Zero Hunger in Global Sustainable Development**

Since their adoption in 2015, the SDGs have become a unique and ambitious global framework aimed at addressing the complex and interconnected challenges of the modern world. This set of 17 goals and 169 targets represents a global consensus on where the international community should be heading to build a more sustainable and prosperous future for all Earth's inhabitants (UN Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development n.d.).

The SDGs represent a deep commitment by world leaders to overcome geographic, social, and economic divides and address the common challenges of humanity. These goals reflect the desire to create an environment in which all nations and communities can develop their potential, ensure their well-being, and protect natural resources for future generations (Bell and Morse 2019; Hajer et al. 2015; Maleševi´c Perovi´c and Mihaljevi´c Kosor 2020). Thus, the SDGs represent a global vision of a fairer and more inclusive future, where every individual has access to a dignified life and equal opportunities.

In a world characterized by complex and interconnected challenges, such as climate change, social and economic inequalities, political instability, and global health issues, the SDGs have become the anchor to which the efforts of nations and international organizations to address these challenges are reported. They provide a platform for collaboration, innovation, and joint action, with the goal of creating sustainable and scalable solutions (Bell and Morse 2019; Swain 2018; Hajer et al. 2015).

A key aspect of the SDGs is their holistic approach and the interconnectedness of the goals. Each objective does not act in isolation but influences and is influenced by the others (Fonseca et al. 2020; Nilsson et al. 2016). This approach recognizes that global challenges are often interrelated and that effective solutions require an integrated perspective. For example, goals such as health and education are closely related to food security and the sustainable management of natural resources (Maleševi´c Perovi´c and Mihaljevi´c Kosor 2020). This interconnectedness requires cooperation and coordination between different sectors and levels of government to achieve meaningful results.

One of the great lessons learned from the adoption of the SDGs is that the world's challenges cannot be tackled in isolation. They intersect and intertwine, and solutions for one can influence the achievement of the others. SDG 2: Zero Hunger is a perfect illustration of this interconnectedness, impacting and, in turn, being influenced by all the other SDGs (Cheo and Kugedera 2021).

For example, the link between SDG 2: Zero Hunger and SDG 1: Eradication of Poverty is evident in the fight against food poverty. Poverty is a determinant of food insecurity and achieving SDG 2: Zero Hunger is essential to improving the health and well-being of populations affected by poverty.

In the same way, the connection between SDG 2: Zero Hunger and SDG 3: Health and Well-being is profound. Access to healthy and nutritious food has a

significant impact on population health. Conversely, poor health can affect a person's ability to provide adequate nutrition, creating a vicious cycle of vulnerability.

Education and training are key elements in achieving the SDGs, and SDG 2: Zero Hunger and SDG 4: Quality Education are interconnected by promoting awareness of nutrition and sustainable agriculture. Education improves knowledge of efficient agricultural practices, stimulating innovation and more sustainable approaches.

SDG 2: Zero Hunger also influences SDG 5: Sanitation and Clean Water. Access to potable water and proper hygiene are essential to ensuring food security. Improper sanitation can lead to food contamination and health problems, which underscores the need for an integrated approach to these goals.

On the other hand, SDG 2: Zero Hunger and SDG 13: Combating Climate Change influence each other. Climate change can affect food production and the availability of agricultural resources, putting food security at risk. At the same time, sustainable agricultural practices can contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions and adapting to climate change (The Lancet 2019).

Achieving the SDGs is a complex challenge, and SDG 2: Zero Hunger plays a crucial role in this equation. The interconnections between SDG 2: Zero Hunger and the other goals illustrate that addressing global challenges requires a holistic and collaborative approach. The transformation targeted by the SDGs is deeply interdependent, where each goal influences and is influenced by the others. By understanding these complex connections, the global community can move towards a more sustainable and equitable future for all.

The SDGs represent an important milestone in humanity's efforts to embark on a sustainable and responsible path. They reflect a shared vision for a better future and a commitment to act in a coherent and concerted way to achieve these goals. The link between SDG 2: Zero Hunger and the other goals illustrates that every step forward in achieving a goal brings significant benefits for the entire planet and for future generations (Griggs et al. 2013). The implementation of the SDGs requires political will, global collaboration, and individual commitment to turn the vision into reality (Bakshi et al. 2018; Bell and Morse 2019).

We are currently at a pivotal moment in global efforts to achieve the SDGs as a firm commitment to build a fairer and more sustainable future for everyone. While significant progress has been made in many regions and areas, it is clear that action to achieve the SDGs is not yet advancing at the speed or scale needed to address the complex and interconnected challenges facing humanity.

One of the central objectives of the SDGs is ending hunger and food insecurity (SDG 2: Zero Hunger). This challenge is critical in a world where approximately

9% of the population suffers from chronic undernourishment, and risks associated with climate change, conflict, and economic inequality threaten global food security. Although there have been improvements in access to food and undernutrition, progress is still insufficient to achieve the goal of ending hunger by 2030 (UN Progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals n.d.; The Lancet 2019).

In many regions of the world, government programs and innovations in agriculture have helped increase food production and improve food security. However, persistent inequalities and poverty remain major obstacles to achieving SDG 2: Zero Hunger. Also, climate change and the risks associated with extreme events disproportionately affect vulnerable communities, putting food security at risk.

The SDGs are a global effort to address the complex and interconnected challenges of the modern world. While progress is being made in many areas, there is still an urgent need to accelerate action and address inequalities and vulnerabilities (UN Progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals n.d.). SDG 2: Zero Hunger is emblematic of the challenges and opportunities that the SDGs bring as a whole. Understanding the links between these goals and promoting coordinated and coherent action are essential to building a better and more sustainable future for all.

The importance of the holistic link between SDG 2 Zero Hunger and all other SDGs lies in the recognition that sustainable development cannot be achieved in isolation but requires an integrated and coordinated approach to the complex and interconnected issues facing contemporary society (Bakshi et al. 2018). Understanding the synergies between SDG 2 and the other SDGs is essential to maximizing the impact of our actions and creating a fairer and more prosperous future for everyone (Figure 17).

By interlinking SDG 2: Zero Hunger with the other SDGs, it is recognized that hunger and food insecurity cannot be eliminated in isolation from other global challenges, such as climate change, poverty, inequalities, and environmental degradation (Guang-Wen et al. 2023; Dörg˝o et al. 2018a). Approaching SDG 2: Zero Hunger within the broader context of sustainable development allows us to explore the ways in which reducing hunger can contribute to solving complex problems, and vice versa (The Lancet 2019).

This link is also crucial to avoid the unwanted negative effects of measures taken within one objective on other areas. For example, increasing food production to achieve the goal of SDG 2: Zero Hunger must be balanced with the need to conserve natural resources and the environment, according to SDG 15: Life on Land and SDG 14: Life Below Water (Salasan and Balan 2022).

**Figure 17.** Links between SDG 2: Zero Hunger and all other SDGs. Source: Figure by authors.

The link between SDG 2: Zero Hunger and the other goals is a recognition that food security and equity are crucial to promoting human well-being, and these issues are closely connected to health (SDG 3), education (SDG 4), and economic growth (SDG 8). Promoting a sustainable and equitable food system has significant implications on poverty, inequalities, and the general well-being of the population, according to SDG 1 (No Poverty) and SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities) (Bastianoni et al. 2018).

Therefore, the importance of the holistic link between SDG 2: Zero Hunger and the other SDGs is essential for genuine and effective sustainable development. This approach allows us to see the subtle and complex connections between different global challenges and identify solutions that have a positive impact in multiple areas (Guang-Wen et al. 2023).

Despite progress in some areas, actions to achieve the SDGs are not progressing uniformly or in sync across all sectors and regions. This can lead to imbalances and undermine global efforts (Bastianoni et al. 2018). For example, progress in education (SDG 4) can have a positive impact on health (SDG 3), and sustainable economic growth (SDG 8) can help reduce inequalities (SDG 10) (UN Progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals n.d.; Inter-Agency and Expert Group on Sustainable Development Goal Indicators (IAEG-SDGs) n.d.).

The reasons for the slow pace of progress are varied and complex. One aspect is the lack of adequate funding and resources to implement specific measures (Spangenberg 2017; Maxim and van der Sluijs 2011). Also, the need for global and national coordination to ensure synergies between different agencies and sectors is essential (Guang-Wen et al. 2023). In addition, political instability, conflicts, and crisis situations can make it difficult to implement the SDGs in certain regions (Ben Hassen and El Bilali 2022).

However, it is important to emphasize that we are not at an impasse. Despite the challenges, there have been significant successes in areas, such as health, education, and poverty reduction (World Health Organization 2016).

Drawing insights from experiences and adapting strategies, the acceleration of the SDG achievement becomes attainable. The promotion of innovation, community engagement, and international collaboration holds the potential to expedite progress and facilitate the establishment of a sustainable future (Fuso Nerini et al. 2018). Through these means, the groundwork is laid for the cultivation of a future characterized by equity, prosperity, and sustainability across global communities and ecosystems.

#### **5. Holistic Solutions: Concluding Reflections on SDG 2: Zero Hunger and Its Links with the SDGs**

The challenges linked to SDG 2: Zero Hunger resonate across the entire spectrum of SDGs, either through direct connections or more nuanced and indirect correlations, necessitating a comprehensive and intricate approach for their comprehension. The centrality of SDG 2: Zero Hunger to the accomplishment of other objectives is evident in its pivotal role in safeguarding people's health and well-being, inherently tied to the availability of adequate and nourishing sustenance. Effectively tackling the problem of hunger and malnutrition demands a comprehensive strategy addressing underlying concerns, such as poverty, inequality, climate change, and sustainable economic growth, all of which hold intricate ties with each of the remaining SDGs (UN Progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals n.d.).

Addressing poverty and inequality can lead to a decrease in hunger by expanding access to nourishing food sources. Concurrently, countering climate change supports sustainable agricultural and ecosystem development, thus assuring the stability of food supplies and water resources (WHO/UNICEF 2008). Similarly, educational initiatives and sustainable economic growth foster employment opportunities, particularly in sectors like agriculture and food production, bolstering food security. The fight against food wastage and losses contributes not only

to SDG 12's aim of sustainable consumption and production but also to curbing environmental impacts through reduced greenhouse gas emissions and judicious resource utilization (Francis and McDonagh 2016).

Consequently, attaining the aspirations of SDG 2: Zero Hunger requires an integrated and multifaceted approach, encompassing the complexities of poverty alleviation, inequality reduction, climate change mitigation, sustainable economic development, and waste reduction in tandem with fostering sustainable consumption and production (Le Blanc 2015).

To achieve the aims of SDG 2: Zero Hunger, a widespread and synergistic engagement of global, regional, and local authorities becomes paramount. The objective cannot be fulfilled through isolated endeavors but necessitates synchronized cooperation between governmental bodies, international organizations, civil society, private enterprises, and other stakeholders (Le Blanc 2015; Griggs et al. 2013).

At the global stage, governments and international organizations must formulate policies and programs addressing the root causes of hunger while advocating for sustainable agriculture and balanced diets. These initiatives should be seamlessly integrated into national developmental agendas, subjected to regular monitoring and evaluation to gauge their effectiveness (Swain 2018). Regionally and nationally, comprehensive strategies should be devised to curtail poverty, bolster educational and healthcare accessibility, and endorse sustainable agricultural practices and healthy nutrition. In this context, public–private partnerships should be established to ensure effective strategy implementation. Locally, authorities must frame policies aligning with the specific needs of communities, endorsing sustainable agriculture and nutritional practices. Collaborations between governing bodies, local communities, and private entities are essential to yield context-specific solutions (Griggs et al. 2013; Reyers et al. 2017).

The staggering fact that all the food produced but left uneaten could feasibly feed around two billion people, and this exceeds double the count of undernourished people worldwide, acutely underscores not just a systemic failure but a disconcerting lack of prioritization when it comes to combating hunger (World Food Programme 2020). While SDG 2: Zero Hunger ambitiously aims to achieve zero hunger, the stark reality remains that despite these aspirations, the measures put in place to mitigate food waste often fall far short of their intended impact. The inefficiency of food waste reduction strategies not only speaks to a lack of resourcefulness and effective implementation but also exposes a disquieting apathy towards the prevailing global issue of food insecurity (Ivanova et al. 2016; Balan et al. 2022b; Feher et al. 2021). Indeed, food waste can be perceived as a manifestation of indifference and, in some

aspects, even a form of selfishness. It is a stark reminder of how excess and disregard can coexist within the same geographical boundaries. Contrary to a common assumption, geographical distance is not the sole culprit; food waste and hunger are present simultaneously, even within the confines of the same country, city, or even neighborhood. This poignant reality highlights a disheartening paradox where food waste occurs side by side with food insecurity, illustrating a stark disparity between those who are wasteful and those who suffer from hunger. In such instances, food wastage is not just an act of negligence; it is a poignant demonstration of disregard for the plight of those in need, an inadvertent endorsement of an alarming culture of neglect and indifference to the global food crisis. People-to-people collaborations in local communities are essential to achieve context-specific solutions. Therefore, the education of the population in communities of all sizes, regarding food waste, is deficient, as long as everyone has neighbors or knows people who suffer from hunger while food is wasted in their own homes.

The realization of SDG 2: Zero Hunger hinges on involving stakeholders at every level and harmonizing efforts globally, regionally, nationally, and locally (FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO 2023). A holistic approach is imperative to address hunger's root causes and propagate sustainable agriculture and nutritious dietary habits.

Simultaneously, the continuous assessment of advancements is essential to gauge the extent of SDG 2: Zero Hunger's accomplishments. Monitoring aids in identifying vulnerabilities and shortcomings, contributing to the development of effective policies and interventions against hunger and malnutrition (World Food Programme. Hunger Map 2022). Assessment should span topics, such as food accessibility, equal food distribution, nutritional standards, health, and education. Up-to-date relevant data are pivotal for informed decision making and tracking progress over time. Moreover, monitoring and evaluation must be conducted across local, national, and international tiers for a comprehensive grasp of the situation. Communication and cooperation among stakeholders at various levels remain crucial for sharing information and refining decision-making processes (FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO 2023).

Conversely, the shortcomings and limitations of SDG 2: Zero Hunger come to light in its failure to encapsulate the intricacies of food systems and the food industry, both instrumental in either exacerbating or mitigating hunger and malnutrition. Additionally, the SDG does not explicitly address environmental concerns or the implications of climate change on food security. Some of its objectives and metrics lack specificity or fall short of offering comprehensive measurement tools (Halkos and Gkampoura 2021; Sachs et al. 2019).

Given these circumstances, it is undeniable that monitoring and assessing the progress of SDG 2: Zero Hunger, its interlinkages with other SDGs, and their reciprocating impact are pivotal in refining the current scenario and formulating effective policies and programs in the battle against hunger and malnutrition.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, R.L. and I.M.B.; Methodology, M.O.; Software, M.O.; Validation, R.L., I.M.B. and M.O.; Formal Analysis, M.O.; Investigation, I.M.B.; Resources, R.L.; Data Curation, M.O.; Writing—Original Draft Preparation, R.L.; Writing—Review and Editing, I.M.B.; Visualization, M.O; Supervision, R.L.; Project Administration, R.L.; Funding Acquisition, M.O.

**Funding:** This research received no external funding.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.

#### **References**


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