**Improving the Diversity of Native Edible Plants and Traditional Food and Agriculture Practices for Sustainable Food Security in the Future**

#### **Permani C. Weerasekara and Angelika Ploeger**

#### **1. Introduction**

By the year 2030, agriculture will have to provide the food and nutritional requirements of some eight billion people (Godfray et al. 2010). These include eradicating hunger, improving access to food, ending all forms of malnutrition, promoting sustainable agriculture, and preserving food diversity (Godfray et al. 2010). Thus, food security or, even better, food sovereignty, is one of the challenges in this world (Boyer 2010). Simultaneously, research and development are focused on improving the productivity of a small number of existing crops that will improve global food production instead of increasing the diversity of crops. The result is the loss of agrobiodiversity (Shiferaw et al. 2011). This results in a loss of agricultural biodiversity, which, in turn, results in a food industry that is more vulnerable to abiotic and biotic stresses and at an increased risk of catastrophic losses (Shelef et al. 2017). Increasing global food production is needed to address these challenges, which cannot be achieved by expanding industrial agriculture by converting land into an environmentally degraded environment and biodiversity (Chappell and LaValle 2011). The use of wild plants and the development of new crops will, therefore, help us diversify global food production and better adapt to the diversity and changing living conditions of populations (Shelef et al. 2017).

Additionally, the manifestations of global, climate, environmental, behavioral, and technological changes underscore the need to improve food production in ways that minimize the negative impacts of sustainability on the ecosystems we believe to be sustainable (Godfray and Garnett 2014). Indigenous ecological agriculture can restore the health of land and people through five processes that activate and connect all life. The five processes are the flow of energy absorbed by plants through photosynthesis, the soil-mineral cycles that provide nutrients for life, the water cycles, the biosphere, our ecological relationships that create animal communities, and the relationships between people and land, including the genes (Massy 2020). As part

of these vital connections, we can also benefit from relearning how to use native plants as sources of healthy food and other products, with a focus on environmental issues. Shelef et al. (2017) argue that the use of indigenous plants in local food production will help create more sustainable agriculture. Native food production has recently received more attention, while the use of native plants in local food production has received less attention. According to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), more than 90% of the calories consumed by humans come from just 30 plant species (Hammer et al. 2003). Humans only cultivate about 150 of the world's estimated 30,000 edible plant species, and only 30 plant species make up most of our food (Shelef et al. 2017; Sethi and Plummer 2015). For some of these species, genetic diversity decreases as the number of varieties sold decreases (Shelef et al. 2017).

In any particular culture, no matter how popular they are, traditional foods have long been consumed and are considered to be an expression of history and lifestyle (De Soucey 2010). However, the intergenerational dissemination of knowledge about indigenous and traditional foods is now limited due to changing lifestyles, there being fewer knowledge holders, and there being fewer flora and fauna resources. Therefore, new crops and weeds of an indigenous origin can diversify global food production through commercial practices, as well as the use of traditional knowledge and allow better local adaptation to human habitation in different environments.

Regarding this matter, this study focused on Sri Lanka. In this article, we consider Sri Lankan edible plants, their values and advantages, and the barriers to using local traditional food plants, knowledge, and their uses. Sri Lankan traditional diets are richly diverse (Weerasekara et al. 2018) and offer various health and nutritional benefits, including protection from noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) and micro nutrition deficiencies. As well, Sri Lanka is an island rich in biodiversity and has approximately identified 3368 plant species belonging to 1294 genera and 132 families (Rajapaksha 1998). About 800 plants are endemic to Sri Lanka (Rajapaksha 1998). Many of these plants have been used in the past to build a healthy rural community under the precise guidance of local traditional healers, elders, and indigenous communities. Local and traditional foods in Sri Lanka have a long history, and unique traditions have existed for thousands of years (Perera 2008). The traditional diet in Sri Lanka is closely linked to nutritional, health, and therapeutic arguments regarding food ingredients and preparation methods (Weerasekara et al. 2018). These plant species have unique therapeutic and nutritional properties that can solve acute local health problems (Weerasekara et al. 2020). This article examines the local plants and traditional nutritional knowledge. This article helps to improve

the diversity of native edible plants and traditional food and agriculture practices for sustainable food security in the future.

#### **2. Materials and Methods**

#### *2.1. Study Area*

The study is part of a collaborative project investigating food system commercialization and hidden hunger and malnutrition in Sri Lanka (Weerasekara et al. 2018; Weerasekara et al. 2020). Based on the feasibility and previous research experience carried out in Sri Lanka in 2016–2019, the agro-environmental zone for rural areas was selected for this project. The district of Anuradhapura in the north–central province of Sri Lanka was chosen as the study area. The people in this area are mainly engaged in agriculture to earn their main source of income. According to our recent study, the people in this area had rich dietary diversity in the past (Weerasekara et al. 2018).

#### *2.2. Study Sample*

This research used the combined concept of ethnographic and sociological study approaches. Information and data were collected through field interviews and historical references. Oral histories are a collection of stories and the reminiscences of a person or persons who have first-hand knowledge of any number of experiences (Ritchie 2014; Thompson 2017). Therefore, the interviewers carried out discussions with older people over the ages of 70–90 years (*n* = 50) who had experience with traditional knowledge and with the subject experts (*n* = 10). The expert interviews were different to each other in terms of the questions and subjects. The experts were selected based on the nature of the research questions. Furthermore, there were open interviews and questions with small-scale farming households (*n* = 20). These were mainly incorporated to capture any historical production-related changes in the traditional food system and dietary patterns in Sri Lanka. Food security Participants were asked questions about their access to traditional foods. A multi-step coded question asked participants about their perceptions of their current traditional food consumption in comparison to 50 years ago.

#### *2.3. Data Analysis*

The interviews were conducted in Sinhala, and then translated into English. The interview data were transferred to an Excel datasheet. MAXQDA 2018 was used for coding the interviews. The interview data were also transferred to the

datasheet before conducting statistical analysis. The interview questions were slightly altered based on research areas and position. However, it remained connected to the research objectives. The Sri Lankan food consumption table was used to calculate nutritional analysis.

#### **3. Results**

Historical references showed that, in ancient Sri Lanka, there were no farmers as they are defined today because people never owned farms or farmed for money. Agriculture was not a revenue-generating process, and at the same time, it was not considered to be a business or an industry. Agriculture was essentially everybody's service, and it was the public's responsibility to use and maintain the land for the sake of the nation (Weerasekara et al. 2018). Therefore, Sri Lanka is an island with high biodiversity, and access to food was not a problem. This is well documented in the old chronicles by Robert Knox (1983) and Emerson Tennent (1860). Most of the foods that the Sri Lankan elders enjoyed were not grown by them. They were found everywhere, growing naturally (Knox 1983). This was confirmed by the elderly people in this area.

Eighty-five species were identified, dominated by vegetables, fruits, legumes, roots/tubers, herbs, wild mushrooms, spices, and cereals, in this study. The findings show that Sri Lankan people had diverse crops in their home gardens. These findings suggest that traditional food with high agrobiodiversity contributed more toward food security among Sri Lankans in the selected sites. These findings suggest that traditional food with high agrobiodiversity contributed more toward food security among Sri Lankans in the selected sites. The finding of the study showed many traditional Sri Lankans have always been concerned about the type of food that they choose, including the quantity and quality of their food. Also, food security and food availability in traditional Sri Lanka were higher. Food was consumed according to the type of person (child, adult, elder), physiology (sick, pregnant, nursing), degree of activity (less active, energetic), and the type of meal (breakfast, lunch, dinner).

Based on the data, the results can be subdivided into traditional food plants, traditional food preparation methods, traditional food preservation, food security, and traditional agricultural practices.

#### *3.1. Traditional Native Food Plants*

According to the results, traditional native food plants can be categorized as green leafy vegetables, vegetables, fruits, grains, Pulses, roots, and tubers. Traditional food plants can be divided in two. One group represents the use of native plant

species, which often have not been studied or commercialized. Another one is the commercial use of food plant species. These, not well-known plants have become an essential part of Sri Lanka's rural lifestyle and enhanced the country by providing people's daily therapeutic supplements for a healthy lifestyle at no extra cost.

#### 3.1.1. Green Leafy Native Vegetables

Sri Lankan people utilized a large number of plant species to meet their food needs. Green leafy vegetables of various native plants with good health properties enrich their diet with fiber and micronutrients. The Sri Lankan diet consisted of green leaves, which they used in many ways. In particular, green leaves were the main source of vitamins and other therapeutic values. Green leafy vegetables can be classified into: (1) Cultivated vegetable leaves (many cultivated plant leaves are consumed) such as cassava leaves, pumpkin leaves, and beetroot leaves. (2) Semi-wild vegetables that grew as wild shrubs. But now, they are protected when they grow in home gardens. (3) Wild leafy vegetables that grew in forest areas. Most of the green vegetables and leaves listed contain high amounts of minerals and vitamins that play a significant role in boosting people's immune systems. These foods are still often available in forest areas or home gardens. Unfortunately, these plants are often not consumed, studied, or commercialized. Nineteen green leafy vegetable species were identified in this study (see Table 1). The historical references and oral interviews showed that some of the traditional Sri Lankan green leafy foods have many nutritional benefits.

Some of the leaves are less popular, but have a high nutrient value, and people can use and cultivate them. These are the examples for that: Bata Krilla (*Erythroxylum moonii*), Kara Kola (*Canthium coromandelicum*), Pothupala (*Aniseia martinicensis*), Genda (*Portulaca oleracea*), Pitawakka (*Phylanthus debilis*), and Kalu habarala (*Maba buxifolia*).


**Table 1 .**Leafy green vegetables in the study area

.

bitter , and

6

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6


;can

;can

;can

;can

thiththa

7


8

8

8

contains rich amounts of nutrients, antioxidants, vitamins, minerals, fiber,

C, potassium, magnesium, and iron. It contains rich amounts of nutrients, antioxidants, vitamins, minerals, fiber,

markets

contains rich amounts of nutrients, antioxidants, vitamins, minerals, fiber,

**Table 1.***Cont.*


9

contains

and

magnesium

.

vitamin B9,

iron,

calcium,

copper

iron, vitamin C, potassium

and other nutrients

This plant is used to treat

eye diseases,

groin swellings, and

Rarely consumed

15. Climbing day flower (Girapala)

16. Ceylon


Nivithi

)

(

Gas

Leaves

Leaves

boils, burns,

pruritus

.

This plant is used to treat

male infertility,

impotence, diarrhea,

dysmenorrhea

.

particularly beta carotene and lutein, which are naturally occurring chemicals that help keep your cells from aging. It

Rarely consumed

It is rich in antioxidants,

lung diseases,

spleen disorders,

loss of energy, and

.

8. Slender amaranth (Kuura Thampala)

8. Slender amaranth (Kuura Thampala)

9. Sickle Senna (Thora

Leaves

Leaves and young stems

Leaves and young stems

and C. Use

good for the eye

good for the eye

and C. Use

dfor

.

medicine for worm diseases

medicine for worm diseases

.

It is used to treat warm diseases

*c*onstipation, hemorrhoids, ringworms dysentery, eye diseases, liver disorders,

*c*onstipation, hemorrhoids, ringworms

It is used to treat warm diseases

, asthma,

, asthma,

Rarely consumed

.

.

Roots have been taken as

dfor

gastritis, eaten cold, and

Rarely consumed

buy it at some markets

buy it at some markets

Rarely consumed

;can

;can

Roots have been taken as

gastritis, eaten cold, and

This leaf is high in iron and vitamins B

This leaf is high in iron and vitamins B


and fatty acids, and is a rich source of

and fatty acids, and is a rich source of

and fatty acids, and is a rich source of

9

99


10

10

10

#### 3.1.2. Vegetables and fruits

Ninteen species of native fruits and vegetables were identified in this study (see Table 2). Traditional Sri Lankans believed that eating vegetables daily is important for good health. Vegetables provide vitamins, minerals, and other essential nutrients, such as antioxidants and fiber. Vegetables provide the nutrients necessary for the well-being and maintenance of the human body. This reflects the growing need to promote less-exploited crops, especially conventional crops, to meet the food needs of Sri Lanka's growing population. The villagers defined "naturally grown vegetables" as edible plants grown without special care, without the use of pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers, and that are not grown using commercial seeds or for commercial purposes (Perera 2008). The vegetables were picked daily around the houses, preferably before cooking. They also mentioned that freshly picked vegetables made their food tastier.


**Table 2.** *Cont.*

#### **Wild Fruit Local Vegetables**

**Palu (***Manikara hexandra***)** This fruit is used to relieve burning sensation and anorexia while the bark is used for odontopathy.

#### **Eraminiya (***Ziziphus napeca***)**

This fruit is used for fever, dysentery, and loss of appetite. People also use this fruit for constipation, diabetes, aging skin, high cholesterol, insomnia, and many other conditions, but there is no good scientific evidence to support these uses. This fruit is freely available in the forest and it contains a high nutritional value.

#### **Karamba (***Carissa* **spp.)**

It prevents excessive secretion of bile by the liver and is used for Ayurvedic medicine. This fruit is also rich in vitamin C, vitamin A, calcium, phosphorus, and iron.

#### **Veralu/Ceylon olive (***Elaeocarpus serratus***)**

This fruit is rich in minerals, vitamins, fiber, and valuable antioxidants. It possesses anti-inflammatory, antibiotic, antianxiety, analgesic, antidepressant, and antihypertensive properties. It is used in rheumatism and is an antidote for poison.

#### **Katuanoda (***Annona muricata***)**

It has strong anti-cancer effects. Katuanoda is high in carbohydrates, especially fructose and It has large amounts of vitamins C, B1, and B2. It has an antioxidant known to boost immune health.

#### **Wal del (***Artocarpus nobili***)** This plant is endemic to Sri Lanka. Waldel seeds are good for asthma patients. Wal del oil from seed was used in traditional

medicine.

#### **Kekatiya (***Aponogeton crispus***)**

This plant is native to Sri Lanka. This plant is a good source of nutrition. These flowers are consumed as vegetables. This plant is a good source for burning sensations in the

body, heart disease, and diabetes. Traditional men gave to pregnant women.

#### **Emberella (***Spondias dulcis***)**

This fruit is used for high blood pressure while leaves are used to cure mouth sores.

#### **Ash Pumpkin/Puhul**

**(***Benincasa hispida***)** The fruit contains a fixed oil, starch, resin, proteins, vitamins B and C. It is used for insanity, epilepsy and other nervous diseases. The cortical part of the fruit is given to diabetics.

#### **Drumstick/Murunga (***Moringa oleifera***)**

The fruits contain energy, iron, moisture, protein, fats, carbohydrates, calcium, phosphorus, carotene, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, vitamins C and B. It was used for insanity, epilepsy and other nervous diseases. The cortical parts of the fruit are given for diabetes. Leaves and antidote bark of the tree are used in food preparation.


Source: Authors' compilation based on data from BFN Project Sri Lanka (2009); Biodiversity for Food and Nutrition (2018).

The traditional diet consists of a large range of vegetables and fruit extracts of different species prepared in different ways. Jackfruit and breadfruit, which are found all over the island, provide many edible components. In Sri Lanka, jackfruit is consumed as a vegetable as well as a fruit. Young jackfruit seeds are high in fiber and have many health benefits, such as high levels of protein and vitamins (Swami et al. 2012), and they boost people's appetite when they are boiled, fried, or cooked. Also, different types of bitter gourd (fence, snake, crested, bitter, and bottle), gourd (gray gourd, Malay, button, Arjuna, Samson, Mimini, Ruhuna, and Janani), melon, bean (long, French, winged, and wide), eggplant, luffa, gray bananas, tomatoes, women's fingers, beets, drumsticks, radishes, leeks, banana flowers, and cucumbers are some of the most popular traditional vegetables. Sri Lankans also consume a variety of young fruits, such as bananas, mangoes, pineapples, and papayas, as vegetables. Additionally, different variations of ripe fruits, such as mango, pineapple papaya, passion fruit, sugar apple, durian, rambutan, mangosteen, wood apple, bael fruit, avocado, different kinds of banana ("kolikuttu", "seeni kesel", "ambul kesel"," suwadal", "puuwalu", "rathkehel", "ambun", etc.) and jackfruit, were common desserts that accompanied main meals.

In addition, the villagers defined "naturally grown vegetables" as edible plants grown without special care, without the use of pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers, and those that are not grown using commercial seeds or for commercial purposes (Perera 2008). These vegetables were picked daily around houses, preferably before cooking. They also mentioned that freshly picked vegetables made their food tastier. Some local fruits, such as "beli", "masan", "mora", "himbutu", "nelli", "katu anoda", "veralu"( ceylon olive and "lavulu", are rapidly disappearing. More than 100 species of wild fruits have been recorded in Sri Lanka. Many of the selected wild fruits and vegetables are listed below (Table 2).

#### 3.1.3. Grains and Cereal

Fourteen spices of traditional grains were found in this study (Table 3). Rice has been a staple food and a major carbohydrate source in the Sri Lankan diet since ancient times. Rice was consumed three times a day. Different varieties of rice were served to different people, such as pregnant and lactating women, sick people, monks, and children (Perera 2008; Weerasekara 2013). Pregnant mothers, for example, were given "Ma Vee" varieties and other varieties were fed "Heenati" to infants and adults who could not easily digest them. There are reports that there were more than 2442 different types of rice in ancient Sri Lanka (Perera 2008; Weerasekara et al. 2018). These traditional varieties have good nutritional benefits. In addition to rice, there were many types of grains in Sri Lanka.

#### 3.1.4. Roots and Tubers

The study found five types of roots in this study area (see Table 4). Starchy roots and tubers are plants that originate from diversified botanical sources that store edible starch in underground stems, roots, corms, bulbs and tubers. After grains, starchy root and potato crops are important as a global carbohydrate source. In addition, various tubers and roots provided the carbohydrates in the Sri Lankan diet. The edible Dioscorea and colocasia species were traditionally the most popular in Sri Lanka. There are more than 93 varieties of roots and tubers crops in Sri Lanka, but despite their abundance, their use has been declining in recent decades. Starchy root and tuber crops are important components of the human diet. There are several roots and tubers of different species that produce great biodiversity even within the same geographical location. Starchy roots and tubers have been a part of dietary choices since ancient times.


**Table 3.** Most common traditional grains in Sri Lanka.


**Table 3.** *Cont.*

Source: Authors' compilation based on data from Rajapaksha (1998); Jayaweera (1980); De Fonseka and Vinasithamby (1971); BFN Project Sri Lanka (2009); Biodiversity for Food and Nutrition (2018).


**Table 4.** Type of commonly used roots and tubers in traditional Sri Lanka.

Source: Authors' compilation based on data from Rajapaksha (1998); Jayaweera (1980); De Fonseka and Vinasithamby (1971); BFN Project Sri Lanka (2009); Biodiversity for Food and Nutrition (2018).

#### 3.1.5. Pulses and Legumes

Legumes play an important role as a source of protein in the Sri Lankan diet (Sherasia et al. 2018; Ofuya and Akhidue 2005). The health and nutritional benefits of pulses are remarkable. Therefore, they are considered to be a good source of nutrients to combat malnutrition in developing countries such as Sri Lanka. There are many species and varieties of legumes with different carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, vitamins, fiber, and other bioactive compounds. Sri Lanka is a valuable repository of agrobiodiversity and is rich in genetic diversity. The pulses grown in Sri Lanka reflect this value, and there are almost 100 varieties in Sri Lanka (Helvetas Sri Lanka 2001). The most common examples are cowpeas, peas, horse gram, black gram, lentils, common beans, and winged beans. The nutritional value, health benefits, and therapeutic effects of these varieties vary from species to species. Furthermore, genetically modified legume varieties are more tolerant of harsh environmental

conditions. Therefore, it is essential to identify cereals with a high nutritional value and high level of tolerance to adverse environmental conditions, pests, and diseases.

#### 3.1.6. Herbs and Spices

Sri Lanka was known as the "Pearl of the East" and the "Spice Island" in ancient times. The Portuguese, the Dutch, and finally, the British were drawn to Sri Lanka because of their passion for spices. Sri Lanka has a variety of plant-based spices (flavors) that have incredible health benefits, most of which we can use. As for the herbs used in everyday life, they can be used as medicines for many minor ailments. For example, if someone has a stomachache, they can roast cumin and drink it like coffee. In addition, goraka (*Garcinia cambogia*), consumed in moderation, can reduce cholesterol levels. It prolongs the life of various herbs and spices and adds flavor. All herbs and spices used in traditional Sri Lankan cuisine have antifungal, antimicrobial, bactericidal, antifungal, and/or antifungal properties, and anti-inflammatory and anti-diabetic properties have been reported (Weerakkody et al. 2010). Commonly used spices are listed in the following table (see Table 5).


**Table 5.** Commonly used spices in Sri Lanka.


**Table 5.** *Cont.*

Source: Authors' compilation based on data from BFN Project Sri Lanka (2009); Rajapaksha (1998); Jayaweera (1980).

#### 3.1.7. Wild Mushrooms

Forests are the main source of food producer for people in surrounding villages. The forests produce different types of mushrooms. There are about 2500 species of mushrooms in Sri Lanka, of which only a little over 200 are known. Additionally, limited research has been conducted on edible mushrooms. However, commercially available mushrooms were first introduced to Sri Lanka in 1985, and later, the consumption of wild mushrooms declined significantly (Karunarathna et al. 2017).

Therefore, traditional knowledge is important. There are traditional beliefs about collecting and cooking different types of mushrooms because some mushrooms are poisonous. 'Mushroom hunting' became a common occurrence during this period as there is a special season that can be attributed to the growth of a particular species of fungi (Hewage 2015). Some wild mushrooms are very nutritious, tasty, and safe to eat, while others pose a serious risk to human health and can even cause death if ingested. Therefore, it is important to pick mushrooms only with someone who has extensive experience in identifying edible and poisonous mushrooms. The study found different kinds of wild mushrooms in this area. They are Urupaha, Leena Hathu, Heenvali Hathu, Idalolu, Kukul Badawel, Wea Hathu, Kotan Hathu, Kos Hathu, Uru Hathu, Piduru Hathu, Mahavali Hathu.

However, everyone must protect themselves from poisonous mushrooms. Sri Lankan people were careful with dark-colored and bad-smelling mushrooms. They avoided consuming that kind of mushroom. Also, if they found that birds and animals avoid them, they avoided eating those mushrooms.

### *3.2. Traditional Stable Foods and Preparation Methods*

The study found that types of traditional foods, preparations, and consumption habits were more diverse than today. Sri Lankan cuisine is famous for its special combinations of herbs, spices, fish, vegetables, rice and fruits. Many of these dishes are based on rice, rice flour and coconut, and seafood plays a major role in Sri Lankan cuisine. Many Sri Lankans prefer vegetable curries and rice. Rice and curries are the staple food anywhere on the island. The curry has a huge flavor and color from the list of hot spices from Sri Lanka. These spices not only adding great flavor to the dish but also add Ayurvedic value to the dish. As Sri Lankan food culture is regionally diverse, one can expect the same food in different styles and flavors (e.g., Rice and curry Figure 1). The different dishes had unique and unique preparation systems.

**Figure 1.** Rice and curry (**a,b**). Source: KavindaF (2021) (left); field work (right). **Figure 1.** Rice and curry (**a,b**). Source: KavindaF (2021) (left); field work (right).

Rice preparation is a beautiful remedy for various ailments. Milk rice (Kiri Bath) is one of the specialties of Sri Lankan food culture. To prepare it, they used raw rice with coconut milk. Kiri bath plays a major role in various traditional festivals and ceremonies. Mung bean (green gram) and turmeric powders are also added to make a bowl of colorful milk rice. Yellow Rice (Kaha bath*)* is also one of the healthy rice preparation methods in Sri Lanka. Rice, turmeric, coconut milk and some spices mixed are tasty and healthy. Diya bath is also one of the healthy rice preparation methods in Sri Lanka. They prepared the rest of the rice mixed with water the before night. The next morning this rice mixed with coconut milk onions, salt, burned chili pieces, lime, and curry leaves were prepared for breakfast. This is a very popular food that delays hunger. Rice porridge is a traditional way of preparing healthy Rice preparation is a beautiful remedy for various ailments. Milk rice (Kiri Bath) is one of the specialties of Sri Lankan food culture. To prepare it, they used raw rice with coconut milk. Kiri bath plays a major role in various traditional festivals and ceremonies. Mung bean (green gram) and turmeric powders are also added to make 157

food. Different porridge has different health benefits. Most of used coconut milk, green leaves, garlic, and onions. "Kola Kanda" is a traditional herbal porridge made from raw rice, coconut milk, and the fresh juice of medicinally valued leafy greens. It is usually served at breakfast with a piece of jaggery (made from coconut honey or palm honey). Badi haal keda (roasted rice porridge) is also a porridge dish with roasted rice and salt. Roasted rice porridge is an energy-dense and easily digestible food for people recovering from any ailment. Ripe coconut water extract or coconut milk is rich in proteins and oils and is also an essential ingredient in Sri Lankan curries and sauce. Lightly cooked (almost boiling) coconut milk with salt, turmeric, green chilies, salt, curry leaves, and lime juice make "kiri hodi". Traditionally they had rice flour-based different types of preparation methods. Those are hoppers, string hoppers," pittu", "roti" as well as "sweets kaum", "asmi", "aluwa", "walithalapa"*,* etc. Although some foods are only prepared for certain occasions or certain purposes, all the ingredients are natural. Some dishes are specially prepared

20

This diet includes thin gravy "niyabalawa" mildly cooked salad "malluma" dry roasted "kabale baduma" deep fry (baduma) fry (themparaduwa). Also mixed with grated coconut or coconut oil or coconut milk and various herbs and spices are essential ingredients. Some of these supplements are paired with staple foods. For example, "lunumiris" with milk rice and coconut sambal or grated coconut with

for particular people. e.g., "Asmee", "Konda kaum".

boiled potatoes or jackfruit.

a bowl of colorful milk rice. Yellow Rice (Kaha bath) is also one of the healthy rice preparation methods in Sri Lanka. Rice, turmeric, coconut milk and some spices mixed are tasty and healthy. Diya bath is also one of the healthy rice preparation methods in Sri Lanka. They prepared the rest of the rice mixed with water the before night. The next morning this rice mixed with coconut milk onions, salt, burned chili pieces, lime, and curry leaves were prepared for breakfast. This is a very popular food that delays hunger. Rice porridge is a traditional way of preparing healthy food. Different porridge has different health benefits. Most of used coconut milk, green leaves, garlic, and onions. "Kola Kanda" is a traditional herbal porridge made from raw rice, coconut milk, and the fresh juice of medicinally valued leafy greens. It is usually served at breakfast with a piece of jaggery (made from coconut honey or palm honey). Badi haal keda (roasted rice porridge) is also a porridge dish with roasted rice and salt. Roasted rice porridge is an energy-dense and easily digestible food for people recovering from any ailment. Ripe coconut water extract or coconut milk is rich in proteins and oils and is also an essential ingredient in Sri Lankan curries and sauce. Lightly cooked (almost boiling) coconut milk with salt, turmeric, green chilies, salt, curry leaves, and lime juice make "kiri hodi". Traditionally they had rice flour-based different types of preparation methods. Those are hoppers, string hoppers," pittu", "roti" as well as "sweets kaum", "asmi", "aluwa", "walithalapa", etc. Although some foods are only prepared for certain occasions or certain purposes, all the ingredients are natural. Some dishes are specially prepared for particular people. e.g., "Asmee", "Konda kaum".

This diet includes thin gravy "niyabalawa" mildly cooked salad "malluma" dry roasted "kabale baduma" deep fry (baduma) fry (themparaduwa). Also mixed with grated coconut or coconut oil or coconut milk and various herbs and spices are essential ingredients. Some of these supplements are paired with staple foods. For example, "lunumiris" with milk rice and coconut sambal or grated coconut with boiled potatoes or jackfruit.

They always try to eat healthy. They detected compatible foods. Incompatible foods have always been avoided. If the food had any harmful effects, it was always omitted in an ordinary meal. For example, they did not drink milk, but rather, they ate milk in its fermented form as curd. Today, scientific evidence has proven curd contains many beneficial bacteria. Cultivated and wild vegetables, especially wild green leaves and other wild plant food types were important ingredients for sauces that accompanied carbohydrate staples. The seeds were naturally hybridized and fertilized. The food was plentiful. The choice of food was dependent on the need for it. For children to overcome the burden of intestinal worms, a 'mellum' prepared from 'Eth thora' (*Cassia alata*) or 'Erabadu' (*Erythrina indica*) was used; for diabetic patients, a curry made of bitter gourd (*Mormodia aurandica*) was eaten. Similarly, there were many other dietary recommendations that could be used for therapeutic and treatment purposes. Some foods heat your body, but they use different ingredients to control that. For example, breadfruit/del (*Artocarpus altilis*) and fresh tuna are body-heating foods. To control this, eat this kind of food with coconut. Similarly, some food sources are consumed depending on the health properties of the ingredients. For example, mung beans and long beans are generally not eaten for dinner or by someone with a cold or body pain.

Also, the food that was prepared and brought to the rice field to serve the people was called "Ambula" consisting of local vegetables and rice. Another special preparation was sour fish curry (Malu Ambul thiyal), a unique spicy fish preparation with thick gamboge "Goraka" paste (Perera 2008). This shows, with diverse foodstuffs, how varieties of delicious dishes were prepared (Perera 2008). This was confirmed by Robert Knox in his book An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon in the East-Indies. Some foods are used during a special time. "Hath maluwa" is also one of the special food recipes during the traditional new year festival. They prepared seven different food plant items that were mixed with coconut milk.

Also, "Tambum Hodi"or "Miris Hodi" is a Sri Lankan soup traditionally prepared using herbs and spices, such as black pepper, ginger, drumsticks, cinnamon, curry leaves, garlic, coriander, cumin, and fennel. "Tambum Hodi" is a special soup for various ailments including appetite and stomach ailments. It helps lower blood cholesterol, obesity, certain cancers, the immune system, and inflammatory diseases. It is also good for postpartum mothers. Therefore, the functional ingredients in this soup play a key role in digestive functions and are used as a medicine to prevent diseases.

#### *3.3. Traditional Food Preservation*

Traditionally, Sri Lankans have always kept surplus food for future use. Traditional Sri Lankan people have always kept the surplus for future use. The food preservation was due to two reasons. First, to ensure food security in the future and then to use it in difficult times. Therefore, the need for a conservation diet was satisfied during the off-season, and food waste also did not happen. Preservation was carried out using simple, appropriate, inexpensive, and sustainable indigenous technologies. The game meat is preserved in its fat, and the product is called "Kurukkal". This can only be done with high-fat meat. Therefore, Kurukkal can only be made from wild boar meat and mature venison. As well as Boiled jackfruit

bulbs are half boiled, dried and preserved as "Atu kos ata" and "Atu kos madulu", respectively. During the harvest period, the seeds are collected and stored for later use. For that, they used 'Atuwa' and 'Bissa'. These play an important role in preserving traditional seeds. Until now could not find better than this structure in Sri Lanka. The study found that there were several ways to preserve it.


#### *3.4. Traditional Agricultural Practices*

Food crops are traditional because they are accepted by rural communities as appropriate due to their customs, habits, and traditions. They believe traditional food crops have nutritional and therapeutic value. In addition, these plants are cultivated in a particular ecosystem at a specific location or are harvested in the wild or semi-wild state. Cultivation practices and methods have evolved to meet the needs of the plants as knowledge of the environmental impact of different plants cultivated by humans has improved. In ancient Sri Lanka, agriculture was indeed an organic farming system closely linked to ecosystems (Bandara 2007).

As knowledge of the environmental responses of each crop plant has improved, people have adapted cultural practices and cultivation methods to the needs of the plants. In ancient Sri Lankan people have used three main agricultural methods from the earliest times (Siriweera 1993). Namely, upland and low country paddy cultivation, Chena cultivation (transfer cultivation), and mixed home gardening methods (upcountry home gardening). They are closely associated with nature, natural ecosystems, water management, and pest control systems. Paddy cultivation is the most widely used agricultural method in Sri Lanka. This civilization has been based on paddy cultivation since ancient times. Although, there are only two main agricultural seasons in Sri Lanka called Yala and Maha seasons. The ancient agriculture system was based on both irrigated and rainfed field crops. With the construction of reservoirs and canals for irrigation more areas were cultivated. Short- and long-duration paddy varieties have been selected for cultivation in Yala and Maha seasons respectively. Paddy cultivation in the central hills is related to terrace cultivation called "Helmalu". The intensity and frequency of rainfall increases in the central highlands. In traditional rice terrace cultivation, people used to set up rice terraces using these upland slopes; so, the drainage channels for paddy cultivation had to be well managed. Conventional paddy cultivation with low rainfall in arid areas was mainly based on irrigation systems and developed from people's accumulated experience and knowledge of temperature, rainfall patterns, and soil behavior. Irrigation reservoirs are important structures that demonstrate their ability to adapt to their subsistence activities in the natural environment. These large and small irrigation systems are the best examples to illustrate the environmental protection given by sustainable agriculture. The traditional village function was based on irrigation reservoirs or streams. Rice paddy fields were located below the reservoir/canal. Due to this well-organized location, the paddy fields were gradually supplied with water from reservoirs through canals.

The second agricultural system is called shifting cultivation or slash-and-burn cultivation, which is more commonly known in Sri Lanka as "chena cultivation". Shifting cultivation is a traditional system of agriculture widely practiced in the dry zone of Sri Lanka. It involves the clearing of forest land via slashing and burning and the annual planting of crops for periods of about three years, after which the practice is moved to another forest plot, leaving the previous plot fallow. With increasing population growth and migration, the fallow period was drastically reduced until the practice was no longer viable for sustainable agriculture. In the chenas, secondary crops and vegetables were grown under rainy conditions. The secondary grains include kurakkan (millet), which was considered as the second staple, meneri (millet), thanahal (Foxtail millet), amu (Kodo millet), mustard, ginger, sesame, green gram, and black gram. Also, vegetables such as luffa, cucumber, lady's fingers (okra), snake gourd, bitter gourd, ash gourd, yellow gourd, melon, and brinjal (eggplant) were cultivated in mixed cultures in the Chenas.

The third agricultural system practiced by Sri Lankans since the earliest times is the Kandyan Forest Garden. A variety of economically valuable tree species such as spices, fruits, medicinal plants and woody species are grown. The systems are generally practiced on small family farms and in a few districts (Kandy, Matale, and Kurunegala) in the central region of Sri Lanka. Traditional root and tuber crops, yak, coconut, areca nut, vine palm (kithul), banana, sugarcane, ginger and turmeric, citrus species, and other important food and medicinal plants were commonly grown in home gardens (Siriweera 1994). In addition, it is known that the forest plays an important role in the food system of our people. It provided a wide range of food.

#### *3.5. Food Security, Food Practice, and Diversity*

When asked for their perceptions of their own consumption of traditional foods over the past 50 years, they ate "game meat" (wild meat), such as porcupine, jungle fowl, hare, wild boar, and so on. There was no shortage of any sources of "game meat" in the past, and the slaughtering of wild animals for meat (game) was allowed with restrictions. This community was consuming less of the traditional variety of foods such as healthier wild plants. This study also showed that indigenous fruits and vegetables were not so popular in this area, helping to understand the diversity of food and food transition. When decreases in consumption of a group of traditional foods were reported, the main reason given in each community was the decreased availability or unavailability of that food.

This study indicates that people do not eat wild greens, bark, roots, and mushrooms. The reasons given were not liking the foods, never having tried them, and for mushrooms uncertainty about which types were safe. However, when and if available, these conventional varieties can largely increase food security and nutrition security in this society.

Ninety percent of the households reported that their traditional foods and knowledge came from within their household or immediate family, while 10% reported that others in the community were their main source of traditional foods. Fifty percent of the households in this community reported obtaining all the traditional foods that their households wanted.

Our recent research outcome indicated that their vulnerability to food and nutrition insecurity (Weerasekara et al. 2020). In this study, we found that some endemic vegetables and fruits may be helping to achieve food security. The common vegetables and fruits in these areas have a variety of nutritional benefits, which include leafy greens consumed as part of their regular diets and used in various ways (Weerasekara et al. 2020). Since most of the households partake in small-scale agriculture, they are provided with better food security. Some of their food proportions, especially those of vegetable legumes, different kinds of mushrooms, nuts, seeds, and leafy greens from the wild, are considerably higher than in they are in urban areas. Wild foods can support households who experience financial difficulties and are important contributors to food security. Unfortunately, many did not report eating these types of wild foods. It has become customary to buy food from markets, and many are unaware of the nutritional benefits of these foods.

Our recent research study shows that wild food, such as fruits, leafy vegetables, mushrooms, tubers, and honey, increase the dietary diversity and micronutrient consumption among rural Sri Lankan communities (Weerasekara et al. 2020).

Different food items are listed in the following table (Table 6). There was a significant positive correlation between the food groups (*p* < 0.01). A total of 100% of the participants reported eating starchy staple foods, but the variety of grains, tubers, white roots, and plantation foods was wider in this area. Most of the foods that are consumed by women include rice flour products (string hoppers, hoppers, pittu, and noodles) and wheat flour products (bread, buns, koththu, and noodles). In this area, people consumed starchy staple foods, and more than 90% consumed pulses, beans, peas and lentils, nuts, and seeds. More than 50% of them consumed Vitamin A-rich fruits and vegetables, as well as other vegetables. In this study, the sample results revealed that most of the people consumed a low percentage of animal protein. There are no data about the traditional varieties.


**Table 6.** Type of foodsconsumed in this area by people.


**Table6.***Cont.* Source:Tablebyauthors.\*\*Statisticalsignificance*p*<0.01(two-tailed),S.D.:standarddeviation.

#### **4. Discussion**

These results show that many wild native edible species contribute to food security in Sri Lanka. In addition, many medicinal plants play an important role in food diversity. The traditional population of Sri Lanka diversified their diet by consuming wild, semi-cultivated, and cultivated local foods. The culture and food practices that had a major impact on household food security were the desire to control household income and to share food within the household.

Therefore, we understand the benefits of the practice of local food production for sustainable food practices. Therefore, this study understands the benefits of the practice of local food production for sustainable food practices. First of all, the closer proximity of food production and consumption can help reduce waste and energy inputs as well as recycling factories for transport, storage, and preservation (Murphy et al. 2017). Local food supply can reduce food miles, which in turn reduces carbon emissions (Cowell and Parkinson 2003; Coley 1988). Indigenous food cultures provide fresh and healthy foods because they reduce the use of preservatives and reduce their nutritional value. In short-chain production systems, fresh food is less likely to be severely processed. People's changing appetites and preference for processed foods can adversely affect their health (Provenza et al. 2015). Thus, this study shows the benefits of using native plants and developing new crops.

Obtaining new foods and local crops is one way to diversify their commercial use. Adaptation of local communities to climate change is essential to reduce poverty and food security (FAO 2016).

Native plants have adapted to their native environment. These plants require a small amount of water, fertilizer, and pest and disease control to survive, and they produce high yields (Provenza et al. 2015). Native plants can minimize soil erosion and maintain plant–microorganism–soil interactions (Balestrini et al. 2015; Hawkes et al. 2007). In addition, some research indicates that the role of below-ground interactions of plants with other organisms has been underestimated in the past (Shelef et al. 2013) and has the considerable potential to increase plant activity levels and crop yields (Drinkwater and Snapp 2007). Incorporating native food crops as temporal and spatial by-products in land management helps to maintain soil quality and prevent soil degradation. Similarly, intercropping helps maintain the soil quality and improves nitrogen uptake (Eaglesham et al. 1981), reduces the number of weeds (Liebman and Dyck 1993), and provides farmers with a higher net income (Yildirim and Guvenc 2005). The use of indigenous species can have a positive impact on human health. With the introduction of specially processed foods, the so-called Western diet has changed the main nutritional properties of human food. In addition,

the food industry has opted for fewer fruits and vegetables, preferring varieties that are less rich in phytochemicals than their traditional counterparts are (Robinson 2013). The diversification and expansion of the use of local plants, coupled with the cultural practices of preparing these foods, adds health-promoting plants to people's diet and eliminates the obvious economic costs of such practices (Provenza et al. 2015). According to our study, indigenous plants used by humans for centuries are highly nutritious, tasty, and easily digested foods. Therefore, the use of native plants as a supplement in food production has considerable advantages and, due to their richness in plant substances, they improve both human health and food security (Provenza et al. 2015). The selection of native plants not only increases food diversity for humans, but also diversifies agricultural entrepreneurship and preserves genetic diversity to improve the environmental conditions.

However, it is well known that both natural and human factors contribute to the erosion of plant diversity. In the evolutionary process, plants die out or evolve into new species, but the extinction rate due to human factors is much higher. Political, economic, and social factors have a direct influence on genetic erosion, especially the erosion of food crops.

Traditional Sri Lankan's subsistence agriculture, farming methods, food system and food culture were challenged during the British era of the 19th century. They promoted the cultivation of tea, coffee, and rubber on plantations. Plantation agriculture damaged traditional agriculture and plant diversity. For a long time, the British did not promote traditional agriculture, hoping to break the backbone of traditional agriculture. This had a profound impact on traditional food varieties and farming practices. European food habits have also had a serious impact on traditional Sri Lankan food and farming methods (Weerasekara et al. 2018). Although the introduction of these plants can enrich the plant diversity of Sri Lanka the damage to the diversity of traditional food crops is greater as various plants are grown on a large scale to meet the high demand for exotic varieties. Some of the policies and strategies of the governments that took power before and after independence also led to the decline of traditional food crops. The motto of the green revolution initiated in the 1960s was to increase productivity. The existing traditional varieties were deemed to be unsuitable for the new conditions, and a few new varieties were bred and cultivated. The monoculture is the accepted cultivation method in modern agriculture.

Thousands of food crops grown in farmers' fields are seriously threatened by the cultivation of certain varieties of commercial or useful crops. Deforestation also has profound effects on the genetic erosion of plants and the food security of the people in this region. About 200,000 square kilometers of forests disappear every year.

The diversity of wild edible plant varieties and edible plants is seriously threatened. For example, cereals such as millet, which were a major contributor to carbohydrate intake at the start of this century, are hardly grown anymore. This situation has been aggravated by commercial agriculture. The relative advantage of commercial agriculture has led to the cultivation of a multitude of plants in farmers' fields to meet food needs, displacing several commercially important plants. In modern agriculture, much of the food is destroyed as "weeds". Consider the reasons why a wide range of traditional food plants are important for human survival. In Sri Lanka, the diversity of edible wild plants is seriously threatened. For example, millet is hardly grown anywhere due to commercial crops.

Food security depends on the diversity of food crops. It is now widely recognized that increasing the number of food plant varieties can bring benefits to the community both in the short and long term; so, the search for new alternatives or unconventional plant resources is desperately needed to diversify current agriculture. In this context, underused traditional foods are of particular importance.

Despite the improvement of many public health indicators, malnutrition remains a problem in Sri Lanka, particularly among women and children. Diseases and a lack of high-quality food are two major causes of malnutrition. These problems include poor infant growth, infants with a low birth weight (LBW), poor maternal nutrition, and micronutrient deficiencies. The preparation and conservation of local seasonal foods are important to improve the family's nutritional status. Also, traditional local plants can be effectively used as a low-cost food source for low-income groups. In this context, traditional food crops are of great benefit as they make an important contribution to meeting the nutritional needs of the general, popular and even the rural poor. These food crops adapt well to unfavorable environmental conditions, and some of them can even be grown in marginal soils that are resistant to pests and diseases. Therefore, they require less attention and fewer resources. They are nutritious and have the same value as socially accepted foods and can serve as a staple or as a supplement. Since most of them are harvested from the environment or use fewer agrochemicals than commercial crops do, they can be considered as fresh and healthy foods. Consuming a variety of plant species ensures that the human body is getting all the nutrients it needs.

They provide seasonal food and give additional income to the farmers. Many plants are used as medicine, and firewood, and can be a useful household appliance. Traditional indigenous knowledge for sustainable agriculture can be directly

promoted as an important crop such as traditional yam and green leaves in the future incorporating traditional food plants into agriculture development programs. This plant has beneficial properties in terms of nutrition and value, resistance to adverse soil conditions, resistance to drought and resistance, and benefits to disease so that it can be used as genetic material or future crop improvement programs. It contains invaluable local knowledge on the cultivation, preparation, nutrition, and storage of traditional food crops and can be incorporated into future agricultural programs with or without modifications. Traditional farmers had extensive and unique knowledge of plants and their agricultural practices.

The traditional Sri Lankan people knew about the ecosystem in which they lived and applied methods to ensure the sustainable use of natural resources. They not only used a wide range of plant species, but also developed a large number of varieties adapted to different climatic conditions. They knew how to prepare tasty and nutritious food and how to safely store leftovers for later consumption. Cookery is one of the sixty-four noble arts of ancient Sri Lanka.

People ate different foods. Rice was the staple food and was prepared in many ways. They knew that preparing certain foods could destroy their toxic components. They also realized that certain foods are not allowed to be eaten together because they can be harmful to humans. They tried to prepare good food for different ages and conditions. This extensive knowledge of preparation and nutrition is especially integrated with women. This knowledge was transmitted from mother to daughter from generation to generation. Much of this knowledge is rapidly disappearing, but knowledge of the traditional Ayurvedic system and nutrition is still present. This knowledge has been transmitted orally and practically from one generation to another. Unfortunately, this knowledge and the skills related to traditional agriculture and food culture are rapidly disappearing. According to this sustainable agricultural policy, attention should be paid to traditional food cultures and local knowledge.

**Author Contributions:** All authors contributed equally to this research work.

**Acknowledgments:** This research was facilitated by the Department of Organic Food Quality and Food Culture at the University of Kassel, Germany. The authors express their thanks to all the interviewees in the field who dedicated their time and allowed the authors to participate in their meetings. Without their unconditional support, it would have been impossible to complete this field research study. Last, but not least, we would like to thank the anonymous reviewers of the MDPI Books for their critical and constructive comments.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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