**5. Findings on Farmer Experiences and Adaptation Considerations**

Most farmers were not members of agricultural societies (77.4%) or registered with the Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Fisheries (58.1%). In addition, most (76%) farmers indicated that they grew crops for domestic and commercial purposes. However, these factors did not appear to influence the adaptation decisions made by farmers.

Farmers in the study grew a wide variety of vegetable and fruit crops of which the most widely grown crop was plantain (Table 2). Most of the crops grown by farmers were short-term crops (crops with a harvesting time less than 365 days). The long-term crops (harvest times greater than 365 days) grown by farmers include avocado, lime, orange and mango. Short-term crops such can be harvested in as little as 4 to 5 weeks (lettuce, pak choi, chive, and celery), and as long as 10 weeks (melongene, tomatoes, and hot peppers) (Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Fisheries n.d.).


**Table 2.** Frequency of Crops Grown by Farmers.

Source: Authors' compilation based on data from Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Fisheries (n.d.).

The main climate concern expressed by farmers in the study was related to precipitation patterns. However, there was no consensus on the overall trend. Some farmers perceived that the dry seasons were becoming dryer and the rainy seasons wetter. Others reported that the rainy season appeared to be dryer. Farmers stated they would adapt to rainy seasons and flooding by changing farming operations. These changes include land development and changing the location where crops are planted. Farmers stated they would plant crops on hillsides to facilitate drainage by gravity. This measure can be easily implemented if the land utilised by the farmer has slopes. Although less costly than alternatives, planting on hillsides is more labour-intensive. Other farmers stated they would opt to implement more expensive measures, such as constructing drainage systems alongside growing crops on hillsides. The combination of drainage construction and planting on slopes appears to be successful, as one respondent indicated that excess water is drained from the land because of proper drainage, land development, and topography when there is heavy rainfall during the rainy season.

Some farmers opted to grow plants in pots instead of in the ground. This is an economical option and should be successful, provided that farmers place the pots at elevations above flood waters.

In circumstances where farmers had challenges obtaining water, installing systems to provide water during prolonged periods of little rainfall was a common adaptation approach. Farmers installed drip irrigation equipment, rainwater harvesting, and storage systems and used artificial ponds to ensure timely water

delivery to crops. Many indicated that they unsuccessfully sought government assistance to provide equipment and improve the water supply. In addition, some farmers utilised innovative methods to reduce the costs associated with preventing crops from suffering from water stress. This method involved a farmer attempting to incorporate water conservation, capturing, and storage practices to create a self-contained farming system that mimicked the conditions of a tropical rainforest. The approach involved the farmer covering coconut and fruit trees with bags and placing coconut mulch at the tree's roots to reduce water loss by evaporation and evapotranspiration. Rainwater was also harvested and used to provide water to the crops. This approach reduced the demands on the irrigation systems that deliver stored rainwater to crops, thereby enabling the system to be self-sustainable.

Coupling water conservation practices with water collection and storage methods is effective for managing prolonged periods of low rainfall. The efficient use of limited water resources would increase the probability that crop yield can be maintained under extreme circumstances. The ability to provide and conserve the water needed by crops will become more important if precipitation levels continue to fall and other means of sourcing water are not readily available. Water conservation measures (such as using mulching or other low methods) could reduce the evaporation of water from soils and covering plants and create a microclimate environment. The effectiveness of these measures facilitates the recycling of water that crops use for evapotranspiration.

There appear to be significant consequences of changing weather patterns. A respondent indicated that the quality of the plants has changed since the climate has started to change. Changes include low crop yield and the need to introduce several types of chemicals to improve crop quality.

#### *5.1. Farming Cycle and Workday*

The time spent working on the farm can affect the frequency and duration of exposure to environmental conditions. However, on average, most farmers spend 5.6 ± 3.2 h working on their farms. Many factors were responsible for the variability in the average length of time on farming, including the availability of personnel (family and employees), the stage of the farming cycle (i.e., planting, growing, and harvesting), weather conditions, farming technique, and crop selection. Generally, most farmers worked alone. However, some reported that family members or temporary employees assisted them during the more strenuous phases of farming (planting and harvesting). Having assistance reduced the overall time farmers would spend on the farm. The choice of crop, however, was also a primary factor determining the length of time farming, with some crops requiring more attention than others. Long-term crops such as citrus (e.g., lemon, lime, and orange) require less maintenance than short-term crops such as lettuce. Generally, citrus crops are sold at a higher price than others; however, the price is less stable (Figure 3).

some crops requiring more attention than others. Long-term crops such as citrus (e.g., lemon, lime, and orange) require less maintenance than short-term crops such as lettuce. Generally, citrus crops are sold at a higher price than others; however, the price is less

**Figure 3.** Price of Crops in Trinidad in the Year 2021. Prices: root crops (per kg) include carrots, cassava, yam, dasheen, eddoes, sweet potatoes, and ginger; condiments and spices (per 100) include hot peppers, shadon beni, and pimento; leafy vegetables (per kg) include cabbage and cauliflower; vegetables (per kg) include seim beans, pigeon peas, cucumber, melongene, plantain, pumpkin, sweet pepper, tomato, caraille, squash, and christophene; fruits (per kg) include banana, paw paw, pineapple, watermelon, sorrel and sorrel; citrus (per 100) include lime, grapefruit, oranges, and Portugal. Source: Authors' compilation based on data from National Agricultural Marketing and Development Corporation (2022). *5.2. Adaptation Measures by Farmers* **Figure 3.** Price of Crops in Trinidad in the Year 2021. Prices: root crops (per kg) include carrots, cassava, yam, dasheen, eddoes, sweet potatoes, and ginger; condiments and spices (per 100) include hot peppers, shadon beni, and pimento; leafy vegetables (per kg) include cabbage and cauliflower; vegetables (per kg) include seim beans, pigeon peas, cucumber, melongene, plantain, pumpkin, sweet pepper, tomato, caraille, squash, and christophene; fruits (per kg) include banana, paw paw, pineapple, watermelon, sorrel and sorrel; citrus (per 100) include lime, grapefruit, oranges, and Portugal. Source: Authors' compilation based on data from National Agricultural Marketing and Development Corporation (2022).

#### Table 3 shows the categories of adaptation measures utilised by farmers in this study. As the climate continues to change, there may be hotter days. Adjusting the time spent *5.2. Adaptation Measures by Farmers*

stable (Figure 3).

11 working outdoors is among the measures that farmers should utilise to safeguard against heat-related illnesses. Overall, the techniques used by farmers to reduce time spent working outdoors include selecting low-maintenance crops, hiring workers (or seeking Table 3 shows the categories of adaptation measures utilised by farmers in this study. As the climate continues to change, there may be hotter days. Adjusting the time spent working outdoors is among the measures that farmers should utilise to safeguard against heat-related illnesses. Overall, the techniques used by farmers to reduce time spent working outdoors include selecting low-maintenance crops, hiring workers (or seeking the assistance of family members), and adjusting farming practices to minimise the need for extensive manual operations. Farmers sometimes avoid working during mid-day when ambient temperatures are usually the highest. Although the health and safety of farmers are essential, it is equally critical that they can adjust working practices in a manner that has minimal to no impact on

profitability. This balance is given importance when the socioeconomic vulnerability of some farming community members is considered.


**Table 3.** Emerging Themes and Summary of Practices.

Source: Table by authors.

Hiring workers or selecting low-maintenance crops can potentially disrupt the profitability of farming operations. For example, hiring workers can be costly, and cultivating low-maintenance crops such as leafy vegetables may not be the most profitable choice. Adjusting farming practices to minimise exposure may be the most economical option to reduce exposure to hot ambient temperatures. However, a farmer reported that they could reduce the time spent on farming by using chickens and mulching to reduce the frequency of clearing weeds from the land. Another farmer developed a job schedule to avoid working on the farm during the hottest times of the day. He opted to start working before the sun rises, take a break in the middle of the day, and resume working in the evening.

Under extreme circumstances, some farmers chose to grow different crops or switch to livestock, most switching to long-term crops. While growing these crops requires less water and maintenance and they can be sold at high prices, they often create cash-flow issues as the crops require a long period before they can be sold. However, such an approach is not desirable for vulnerable farmers who depend on a more consistent income.

Some farmers reported using more chemicals to treat pests and improve crop yield. In some instances, farmers have changed the crops that they are growing, specifically switching from short-term to long-term crops. Some farmers have shifted from crops to solely rearing livestock. These farmers reported that switching to raising livestock was a profitable decision.

Generally, respondents indicated that the adaptation measures they implemented achieved the desired result. Most respondents (90%) reported that their adaptations were successful because there was less crop loss or an increase in yield. All the farmers who installed drainage and irrigation systems reported that the measure was successful. Adaptation co-benefits were also reported. For example, farmers reported that farm management is less stressful and mental health was improved when they switched to long-term crops.

Although some adaptation measures were successful, there were notable challenges. For example, farmers who reported changing to long-term crops as an adaptation measure indicated that although the yield is good, the timeframe to make a return on investment is much longer. Another farmer stated that the increased use of chemicals did not help much because of increased rainfall. Farmers reported effects on production delivery times when the chemicals were effective against the pests. However, there were delays in ensuring that no chemical residues remained on the crops before selling to customers.

Low-cost solutions to climate change challenges are required if vulnerable farmers are to be self-empowered to adapt to climate change, and policymakers must consider the adaptive capacity of farmers. The study identified potential low-cost water conservation measures, but farmers still utilised typical cost-prohibitive water storage and distribution measures. However, some level of government intervention may still be required to equip farmers with irrigation systems.

#### **6. Discussion**
