**2. Methodology**

The ethnographic research method was employed to conduct this study. Researchers can observe study participants in their natural environments and interact with them using the qualitative research method known as ethnography. (Sharma and Sarkar 2018). While employing the ethnographic research method, in-depth interviews are conducted to collect the perspectives of the respondents on the chosen phenomenon. In-depth interviews are utilized as a research strategy in which the

researcher gently guides the participants' dialogue across a long discussion to learn about their unique perspectives on one or more narrowly defined subjects (Rubin and Rubin 2011, p. 4). In order to conduct interviews, in this study, an interview guide was constructed after an extensive literature review to cover all the aspects of the main research questions which are focused on exploring the perspectives and practices of people regarding the causes and effects of environmental hazards. An interview can be frequently guided by a list of semi-structured questions that the researcher develops and asks each interviewee. Each in-depth interview takes a different turn and travels down its own meandering road depending on the interviewee's responses. It is crucial for the researcher to have the freedom to explore any relevant subjects that the interviewees themselves bring up (Brounéus 2011). perspectives and practices of people regarding the causes and effects of environmental hazards. An interview can be frequently guided by a list of semi‐ structured questions that the researcher develops and asks each interviewee. Each in‐depth interview takes a different turn and travels down its own meandering road depending on the interviewee's responses. It is crucial for the researcher to have the freedom to explore any relevant subjects that the interviewees themselves bring up (Brounéus 2011). The interview guide was tested in a pilot study before starting the fieldwork and

The interview guide was tested in a pilot study before starting the fieldwork and was revised by incorporating essential changes and omitting unnecessary questions. The pilot study was conducted outside the actual locale of the study, and data were collected from 5 participants including 3 males (1 janitor, 1 transporter, and 1 restaurateur) and 2 females (1 healthcare professional and 1 housewife from the local population). After modifying the interview guide, actual fieldwork started in July 2021 and ended on 15 September 2021. was revised by incorporating essential changes and omitting unnecessary questions. The pilot study was conducted outside the actual locale of the study, and data were collected from 5 participants including 3 males (1 janitor, 1 transporter, and 1 restaurateur) and 2 females (1 healthcare professional and 1 housewife from the local population). After modifying the interview guide, actual fieldwork started in July 2021 and ended on 15 September 2021.

The locale of the fieldwork was Rawalpindi City and its suburbs (Figures 1–3). The metropolitan city of Rawalpindi has undergone substantial urbanization over the past three decades, as residents of rural areas moved there in search of jobs, education, and other necessities. The exponential growth of urbanization has disrupted the local climate (Mannan et al. 2021). The locale of the fieldwork was Rawalpindi City and its suburbs (Figures 1–3). The metropolitan city of Rawalpindi has undergone substantial urbanization over the past three decades, as residents of rural areas moved there in search of jobs, education, and other necessities. The exponential growth of urbanization has disrupted the local climate (Mannan et al. 2021).

**Figure Figure 1. 1.** Study Study Area of Raja Bazar. Source: Adapted from Area of Raja Bazar. Source: Adapted from ARCGIS ARCGIS (2022 (2022). ).

**Figure 2.** Study Area of Murree Road. Source: Adapted from ARCGIS (2022). **Figure 2.** Study Area of Murree Road. Source: Adapted from ARCGIS (2022). **Figure 2.** Study Area of Murree Road. Source: Adapted from ARCGIS (2022).

**Figure 3.** Study Area of Adiala Road. Source: Adapted from ARCGIS (2022). **Figure 3.** Study Area of Adiala Road. Source: Adapted from ARCGIS (2022). **Figure 3.** Study Area of Adiala Road. Source: Adapted from ARCGIS (2022).

Using the purposive sampling technique, in‐depth interviews were conducted with 60 respondents of Rawalpindi: healthcare professionals (10), janitors (10), transporters (10), restaurateurs (10), and the local population (20), which were later transcribed into English. The heterogeneous sample was selected in terms of their demographics, belonging to different age ranges, educational levels, and socio‐ economic backgrounds, to collect a variety of perspectives of the people from the Using the purposive sampling technique, in‐depth interviews were conducted with 60 respondents of Rawalpindi: healthcare professionals (10), janitors (10), transporters (10), restaurateurs (10), and the local population (20), which were later transcribed into English. The heterogeneous sample was selected in terms of their demographics, belonging to different age ranges, educational levels, and socio‐ economic backgrounds, to collect a variety of perspectives of the people from the Using the purposive sampling technique, in-depth interviews were conducted with 60 respondents of Rawalpindi: healthcare professionals (10), janitors (10), transporters (10), restaurateurs (10), and the local population (20), which were later transcribed into English. The heterogeneous sample was selected in terms of their demographics, belonging to different age ranges, educational levels, and socio-economic backgrounds, to collect a variety of perspectives of the people from the chosen locale.

chosen locale. Before starting the interview, rapport was developed with each participant of chosen locale. Before starting the interview, rapport was developed with each participant of Before starting the interview, rapport was developed with each participant of the study. The goal of building a relationship with participants was to collect rich

the study. The goal of building a relationship with participants was to collect rich

the study. The goal of building a relationship with participants was to collect rich

a researcher and a participant, having a good rapport with participants may result in researchers having better access to information and data (Leach 2005). During the interviews, field notes and jottings were taken. The interviews were conducted in

a researcher and a participant, having a good rapport with participants may result in researchers having better access to information and data (Leach 2005). During the interviews, field notes and jottings were taken. The interviews were conducted in

5

data while preserving mutual respect (Guillemin and Heggen 2009). Due to the mutual trust and understanding that are fostered by a positive relationship between a researcher and a participant, having a good rapport with participants may result in researchers having better access to information and data (Leach 2005). During the interviews, field notes and jottings were taken. The interviews were conducted in the local languages, i.e., Punjabi, Pothwari, or Urdu, which were later transcribed into the English language, taking the issues of translation into consideration.

The transcribed data were further sorted and coded to develop initial themes. After developing initial themes, similar coded themes were formed into more focused themes. The analytical byproducts of data analysis include categories, themes, subcategories, and subthemes (Vaismoradi and Snelgrove 2019). The subsequent analysis section of this study is based on these themes generated after a rigorous process of sorting and coding.

#### **3. Results and Discussion**

#### *3.1. Major Environmental Hazards*

Environmental dangers, the most pressing concern of our time, are brought on by several factors that this study has explored. It also discussed the impacts of major environmental toxins on people's lives.

No doubt our environment today is going through its worst phase as industrialization prevails around the world. This industrialization might be a blessing for people seeking ease in every single affair of life but is developing itself into a curse for the environment. With growing industrialization and unplanned development, pollution has emerged as the chief issue around the world. Pollution in its various forms keeps on leaving its imprints on the mental and physical state of its direct victims, i.e., humans. The contamination of the atmosphere of land which leaves an adverse impact on humans is categorized as a constituent of environmental pollution. Landrigan et al. (2018) state that exposure to the contaminants of the environment, particularly lead, air pollution, and pesticides, leads to 9 million deaths worldwide each year. This contamination might exist in the air, land, or water. Due to pollution, natural elements are not only contaminated but become insufficient to meet the growing needs of the population, especially in underdeveloped states where the graph of growth is considerably lower compared to the developed countries of the world. Grandjean and Landrigan (2014) found that the toxins present in the environment are threatening to cognitive and behavioral development among children, especially during the early years of their growth. One of the most powerful environmental hazards exists in the form of air pollution. Over the years, the quality of air has significantly worsened because of growing human activities. In fact, the WHO reports that 99% of the air pollution in the world today contains exceeding levels of air pollutants. A total of 92% of people worldwide reside in areas where the levels of particulate matter are exceedingly higher than the standards imposed by the WHO (Cohen et al. 2017).

Though it is a universal dilemma, Pakistan has seen dangerous levels of increment in the amount of pollution in its atmosphere over the span of the last five years. According to the Air Quality Life Index, Pakistan holds the status of the fourth most polluted country on a global scale, with an alarming rate of 44% pollutants in its air according to the latest statistics. The intensity of the particulate matter in the air becomes so high in the winter months in some of the major cities of Pakistan that it starts acting as a life-threatening phenomenon. In fact, metropolitan cities such as Lahore and Rawalpindi face the curse of smog every year, and the death rate has become as high as 128,000 people on an annual basis all over the country. These victims are all engulfed by the monsters of air pollution (Junaidi 2019). The major culprits behind this high rate of smog in Pakistan are industrial emission of chemicals, smoke coming from brick kilns, and unchecked engines of automobiles which are pacing at a faster rate on the roads every day (Al Jazeera 2021).

There has been a rapid increase in the number of vehicles in Pakistan, which is responsible for carbon emissions. Smog is produced by vehicles. Interviews with several transporters from Rawalpindi were conducted to ascertain the true reason behind the increasing levels of smog and pollution, especially in the winter months in Rawalpindi. One-third of the transporters believed that the "growing influx of population in this city" has become a chief reason for air pollution and smog in the past few years. According to them, it is because of the increased number of vehicles in Rawalpindi which has made the situation hard to battle, since the authorities cannot control the fast-paced growth of automobiles. Ramanathan and Feng (2009) state that the black carbon emission from automobiles is the second most lethal contributor after carbon dioxide, leading to global warming. Most of the transporters thought that in crowded areas such as Murree Road and Katcheri Chowk, where the peak hours result in hours of traffic jams, the engines of the automobiles are usually creating a mess in the atmosphere for many hours. Another interesting fact was revealed as some of the drivers believed that the initiation of the metro bus project has increased the amount of pollution twofold as the smog levels have become increasingly high in areas where the bus system as well as local transportation work in collaboration. Almost all the transporters agreed that they have seen the amount of smog increasing in the past few years, and most of this is because of the unchecked car engines which have become old over time. When they were further questioned, the transporters revealed that the growing economic burden is in some ways responsible for the amount of pollution in the air which they breathe because they are unable to take their vehicles for regular maintenance as the petrol price keeps on hiking and the potential profit is lower as compared to the past.

One of them reported that smog irritates our airways when we breathe it in. He shared a case where one of his family members died because of lung disease. Some of the locals also complained about the burning of their eyes and throat. They stated that their eyes and throat may burn on a day with a high ozone alert, and they may cough and wheeze as well.

Air pollution is not only a concern for transporters as it hinders the possible range in winter, but it is also becoming a burning issue for commuters. These commuters have been organized into various categories. Students, professionals, and daily wagers were questioned about their perspectives. Many of the youth who hailed from the student category believed that air pollution in the city is increasing to dangerous levels. Certain students believed that the amount of carbon monoxide in the atmosphere is becoming a major reason behind long-term respiratory problems. Three students complained that their asthma worsens due to smog, and this impacts their academic life as well. Among the professionals, we interviewed three doctors who were of the view that air pollution has become a major reason behind the increased number of respiratory ailments. Meanwhile, some commuters believed that transporters are not careful in terms of protecting the atmosphere despite repeated warnings. Daily wagers considered that the burden on transporters has intensified due to the bulk of the population traveling on an everyday basis and the number of automobiles that have increased at a higher rate to meet these needs.

Industrialization also plays a vital role in spreading pollutants in the air. The use of furnace oil in factories causes great destruction. The unplanned growth of factories is not only responsible for creating havoc in the form of air pollution but is one of the leading factors behind the production of industrial waste. Ukaogo et al. (2020) suggest that industrialization not only leads to air pollution but enhances the concentration of solid particulate matter on land, impacting public health. Not only industrial waste but also household waste is another dangerous threat to humankind since the silent dumping of waste is a time bomb that will take the lives of many with it when it explodes. The European Environment Agency considers that the linkage between human activities and waste material is close enough since the waste is directly dependent on human consumption, which, of course, is growing due to the growing needs of the global population. The rapid expansion of heavy industry to meet the needs of a growing population leaves the concentration of toxins on the land unchecked as contamination begins to impact healthy lives (Binkley and Miao 2015). In countries where population growth is left unchecked and there are no strict policies implemented for the effective management of human growth, the problem of waste contamination follows. Pakistan faces a severe problem of land pollution due to unchecked population growth and a careless attitude towards Mother Nature.

WWF (2021) has come up with a very intriguing kind of pollution that has existed for the last ten years in Pakistan. Its plastic pollution has increased over time due to the high level of consumption of the population in major cities as well as villages all across Pakistan. Even the capital of Pakistan, Islamabad, faces a grave situation regarding plastic bag pollution, where burning plastic not only pollutes the land but it once again devastates the atmosphere. According to the statistics recorded, 65% of the waste in Pakistan is composed entirely of plastic in its various forms. Sometimes, the waste is shopping bags, while other times, bottles and boxes of plastic contribute their due share in adding more pollution to the already bleak picture. With every approaching year, the share of plastic increases by 15%, which is enough to destroy the planet, making individuals concerned about their health on a large scale (Mukheed and Khan 2020, pp. 1–7). When combined with the rainy seasons, this unchecked increase in waste means that epidemics have become a common tale in every household.
