3.1.4. Socio-Economic Status

Poverty tends to increase as individuals age (Li and Dalaker 2019). Elderly persons who live in sub-standard housing might be unduly affected (Gamble et al. 2013). Some elderly individuals living on fixed incomes may postpone much-needed repairs to their homes, which can be inadvertently affected by severe weather events. These weather events can expose this population to increased harm and danger with the inability to leave their homes quickly and safely.

#### 3.1.5. Geographic Location

The Caribbean Islands are referred to as Small Island Developing States (SIDS). They might be the least responsible of all nations for climate change; however, they are the most likely to experience the worst effects of the same. In the long term, some islands may become inhabitable, and, as such, this makes them even more vulnerable. According to UNFCCC (2005), 90% of SIDS are located in the tropics and are seasonally affected by extreme weather events such as storms, hurricanes, and cyclones. These events produce flooding in coastal erosion, which affects the livelihoods of many. El Nino Southern Oscillation events also produce dramatic weather changes in rainfall, rising sea levels, and other events.

Mycoo et al.'s (2022) report states that the main areas of living are located along the coast and with their current infrastructure concerning urban development and are exposed to climate change hazards. They state that the population of many SIDSs are concentrated in the low-elevation coastal zone (LECZ), which is defined as coastal areas below a 10 m elevation. Approximately 22 million people in the Caribbean live below a 6 m elevation (Cashman and Nagdee 2017). Mycoo et al. (2022) posit that sustainable development challenges include insufficient land use planning and competition, which contributes to the vulnerability of settlements to climate change. Category 4 and 5 hurricanes severely impact settlements; for example, Hurricane Maria in 2017 destroyed nearly all of Dominica's infrastructure, and losses per unit of GDP amounted to more than 225% of the annual Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (Eckstein et al. 2018). Therefore, with respect to climate change incidences, SIDSs face several health risks that pertain to temperature change, including rainfall, climate variability, and extremes (Mycoo et al. 2022). Climate change is increasing the present burden of climate-related health risks. Health risks can arise from exposure to extreme weather events such as heatwaves, changing weather patterns, the compromised safety and security of food and water, and the creation of disruptions to health systems (Schnitter et al. 2019).

The homeless, as one of the groups most vulnerable to climate change, are exposed to especially concerning health impacts. These individuals are most exposed to weather conditions and a myriad of social and economic issues. Gamble et al. (2013) report that older adults and higher numbers of older adults with low incomes live in high-risk locations affected by global warming. These areas include coastal zones, which have experienced more frequent and severe tropical storms. Urban locations are considered a risk factor for vulnerability to climate stressors because of the 'urban heat island effect', present because of the dense concentration of pavements, buildings, and other surfaces that absorb heat. This heat effect can lead to heat-related illnesses and mortality.

#### 3.1.6. Racial and Ethnic Disparities

Members of minority groups are susceptible to the effects of climate change as they may most likely experience situations that increase climate-related risks, such

as poverty. Poverty limits access to healthcare and proper housing for the elderly (Gamble et al. 2013).
