**Christian Casey-Lee Virgil and Kit Fai Pun**

**Abstract:** The agriculture sector is integral to fulfilling the human biological need to consume nutritious food. The industry depends significantly on climate-sensitive assets. Because of this dependency, the need to implement climate change adaptation measures has become increasingly necessary for the sector's survival, growth, and development. Farmers are engaged in the most fundamental steps to safeguard healthy food production. This typically involves activities necessary to grow crops and rear livestock. They make critical decisions on the use of various agricultural resources, such as land, labour, capital, water, and chemicals, that impact food production and security. This study aims to determine the measures that farmers are implementing to adapt to climate change and identify the drivers of these measures. This chapter describes a qualitative study examining the climate adaptation measures in Trinidad and Tobago's farming community. It examines factors influencing adaptation choices and the extent to which desired outcomes are achieved. Climate and food production data are used to contextualise critical issues. The study revealed that most farmers implemented measures to adapt to extreme weather conditions, specifically periods of low rainfall and flooding. It was reported that the implemented measures were successful and that their choices were driven by the availability of resources. Based upon empirical findings, the chapter sheds light on lessons and discusses cases of adaptation that would inform policy decisions and provide farmers with knowledge of various adaptation measures. Moreover, a combination of policy and improved agricultural knowledge would guide farmers in building resilience to climate change.

#### **1. Introduction**

The twin-island state of Trinidad and Tobago is a highly industrialised nation in the Caribbean archipelago (Mohammed et al. 2019). The utilisation of hydrocarbon resources has resulted in the country having one of the region's highest Gross Domestic Products (GDPs) (World Bank 2020). Although the agriculture sector is responsible for only 0.5% of the GDP, it provides employment (4%) (Shik et al. 2018) for citizens who depend on the sector for their livelihoods. The relatively low agricultural activity in the country, however, contributes to the country's dependency on food imports (Eitzinger et al. 2015). Securing the stability of the agriculture sector is therefore essential for ensuring food security and protecting vulnerable

members of society, regardless of overall economic contribution. The ability of the agriculture sector to contribute towards local food security and socioeconomic stability is becoming increasingly threatened by climate risks. contribution. The ability of the agriculture sector to contribute towards local food security and socioeconomic stability is becoming increasingly threatened by climate risks.

Understanding the potential impacts of climate hazards on farming practices requires understanding the local climate state and the extent to which location-specific farming practices can be affected. The primary activities in the crop cultivation process include soil preparation, sowing, adding manure and fertilisers, irrigation, weeding, harvesting and storage (Ministry of Planning and Development 2022). By utilising these activities, farmers can produce various crops to fulfil the human biological need to consume nutritious food. The total annual quantity of food crops grown in Trinidad and Tobago over the last few years have remained relatively consistent, with a noticeable decrease between 2017 and 2019, followed by an increase in 2020 and a subsequent decline in 2021 (Figure 1). The primary type of crop grown (based on weight) in Trinidad and Tobago in 2021 was green vegetables (113,211 kg), followed by root crops (28,919 kg), and then other pulses, such as corn and pigeon peas (11,091 kg) (Central Statistical Office 2022). Understanding the potential impacts of climate hazards on farming practices requires understanding the local climate state and the extent to which location-specific farming practices can be affected. The primary activities in the crop cultivation process include soil preparation, sowing, adding manure and fertilisers, irrigation, weeding, harvesting and storage (Ministry of Planning and Development 2022). By utilising these activities, farmers can produce various crops to fulfil the human biological need to consume nutritious food. The total annual quantity of food crops grown in Trinidad and Tobago over the last few years have remained relatively consistent, with a noticeable decrease between 2017 and 2019, followed by an increase in 2020 and a subsequent decline in 2021 (Figure 1). The primary type of crop grown (based on weight) in Trinidad and Tobago in 2021 was green vegetables (113,211 kg), followed by root crops (28,919 kg), and then other pulses, such as corn and pigeon peas (11,091 kg) (Central Statistical Office 2022).

**Figure 1.** Estimated Quantity of All Food Crops Harvested from Traditional Cultivation in Trinidad between 2014 and 2022. Source: Authors' compilation based on data from Central Statistical Office (2022). **Figure 1.** Estimated Quantity of All Food Crops Harvested from Traditional Cultivation in Trinidad between 2014 and 2022. Source: Authors' compilation based on data from Central Statistical Office (2022).

The agriculture sector is highly dependent on climate-sensitive assets (Linnenluecke et al. 2013) and would therefore be sensitive to climate change. The burden of climate change is disproportionately borne by low-income earners and the most vulnerable in society (Dodman and Mitlin 2013), including farmers. Climate change is expected to disproportionately affect farmers' livelihoods, especially in rural areas (Hutchinson The agriculture sector is highly dependent on climate-sensitive assets (Linnenluecke et al. 2013) and would therefore be sensitive to climate change. The burden of climate change is disproportionately borne by low-income earners and the most vulnerable in society (Dodman and Mitlin 2013), including farmers. Climate change is expected to disproportionately affect farmers' livelihoods,

especially in rural areas (Hutchinson 2011). Farmers are susceptible to climate risks because of exposure to various climate hazards, limited adaptive capacity, and multiple vulnerabilities.

Increased ambient temperatures and droughts are climate hazards that can directly reduce crop yield. Changes in these meteorological conditions can impact crop yield by disrupting the environmental conditions needed for survivability and growth. For example, lower rainfall and higher temperatures are expected to disproportionately affect Trinidad and Tobago's root crops (Ministry of Planning and Development 2019). This effect can have far-reaching consequences, given that root crops were the second most cultivated crop (by weight) in Tobago (Central Statistical Office 2022).

Meteorological conditions can also lead to other changes that can affect crop yield. For example, changes in rainfall and temperature patterns can increase the proliferation of pests and crop-related diseases. Climate change is not only expected to affect crop yield but also the areas where certain crops can grow (Eitzinger et al. 2015). Farmers will be forced to abandon or relocate farms if existing areas become unsuitable for growing crops. This adaptation to climate change can have socioeconomic consequences that far exceed those associated with disruptions to crop yield. Generally, climate change is expected to disproportionately affect the livelihoods of farmers, especially in more rural areas (Hutchinson 2011).

It is also essential to consider the impact of climate change on farmers. Temperature increases can lead to health and safety issues among farmers. For example, high ambient temperatures are linked to chronic disease among agricultural workers in tropical regions (Nerbass et al. 2017). Moreover, high ambient temperatures are known to lead to increased physical injuries (Tawatsupa et al. 2013) mental health issues, chronic diseases, and acute heat-related illnesses such as heat exhaustion and heat stroke (Levy and Roelofs 2019). Vector-borne diseases are also expected to increase as ambient temperature rises (Moore et al. 2017). The increased use of pesticides to combat these vectors also increases the risk of farmers being exposed to pesticides (Gatto et al. 2016). Long-term pesticide exposure increases the risk of chronic diseases (Abdollahzadeh and Sharifzadeh 2021). Moreover, high ambient temperatures can increase the extent to which xenobiotics such as pesticides are absorbed via skin and lung exposure (Gatto et al. 2016).

The health and safety issues affecting farmers have direct social consequences, reduce farm productivity, and diminish income. The negative effects of poor workplace health and safety practices on productivity have been observed in several industries (Shikdar and Sawaqed 2003).

Because of the direct or indirect consequences of climate change, a reduction in crop yield can lead to reduced income, affecting the quality of life of farmers and their households (Cammarano et al. 2020). However, this cascading impact of climate change on crop yield and the resultant social impact on the livelihood of farmers and their dependents is not inevitable. As defined by IPCC (2014), implementing adaptation measures is the "the process of adjustment to actual or expected climate and its effects, in order to moderate harm or exploit beneficial opportunities". This can help farmers mitigate or exploit opportunities related to climate change. Farmers possessing the necessary resources would have better adaptive capacity that enables them to maintain or improve their livelihoods by adjusting to the impacts of these climate risks and reducing vulnerabilities that climate hazards can exploit. Adaptation measures are barriers that prevent the impact of climate change and resultant effects on farmers from being inevitable.

Several studies have examined climate adaptation among farmers. For example, Belay et al. (2017) investigated the determinants of adaptation decisions made by farmers in Ethiopia. Studies by Ghanian et al. (2020) and Zobeidi et al. (2022) examined determinants of adaptation decisions among farmers in Iran.

Arising out of many studies, typical adaptation measures can be organised into general categories. However, there is room for innovation within this arena. Means of adapting to climate change can arise from cultural practices that are unique to the Caribbean. Determining unique measures can provide a means of expanding the adaptation tools available for farmers to meet the prevailing threat of climate change. However, to the best of the authors' knowledge, no study has been reported to examine adaptation decision making in Trinidad and Tobago.

Agricultural activity is concentrated mainly in the western Trinidad areas vulnerable to coastal erosion, coastal flooding, and sea level rises. These coastal issues can exacerbate the adverse effects of meteorological conditions on crop yield.

Building adaptive capacity requires accessing and utilising various resources needed for adaptation. For farmers, these resources include land, labour, capital and knowledge. However, understanding the complex impact of climate change on farmers is necessary before developing appropriate measures to use these and other resources to improve adaptive capacity.

A qualitative approach was used to examine adaptation challenges among farmers in Trinidad and Tobago. A qualitative approach is ideal for exploring the experiences, perceptions and behaviours associated with responding to real-world problems (Tenny et al. 2021). This approach allows for the deep exploration of the nature and ensuing challenges of the adaptation activities that farmers in Trinidad and Tobago were implementing. Questionnaires mainly comprising open-ended questions were distributed to 31 farmers in Trinidad and Tobago to assess adaptation activities. Questionnaires were distributed to farmers conducting farming activities mainly in the eastern areas of Tobago and the northern area of Trinidad. The study was mainly conducted in the Tunapuna–Piarco area of Trinidad and in the Roxborough area of Tobago (Figure 2).

**Figure 2.** Study Area. Source: Adapted from Google Maps (2023). **Figure 2.** Study Area. Source: Adapted from Google Maps (2023).

#### **2. Climate Change Impacts on Farming in Trinidad and Tobago 2. Climate Change Impacts on Farming in Trinidad and Tobago**

Approximately 18,951 farms (covering a total land space of 84,990 hectares) in Trinidad and Tobago grow various crops, with more than half being managed by individuals, households, and sole proprietors (Ministry of Planning and Development 2022). Therefore, reducing the impact of climate risk on farming activity in the country primarily depends on the decisions and adaptive capacity of individuals and social units rather than large-scale organisations. However, these small-scale operations often have limited resources, making adjusting to climate impact more difficult. Farmers in this study earned approximately between 3000 and 7000 United States Approximately 18,951 farms (covering a total land space of 84,990 hectares) in Trinidad and Tobago grow various crops, with more than half being managed by individuals, households, and sole proprietors (Ministry of Planning and Development 2022). Therefore, reducing the impact of climate risk on farming activity in the country primarily depends on the decisions and adaptive capacity of individuals and social units rather than large-scale organisations. However, these small-scale operations often have limited resources, making adjusting to climate impact more difficult.

5 Dollars (USD) in annual revenue. The average farmer spent 5.6 h per day farming (or approximately, 5 days per week), resulting in an hourly income range of roughly USD 2 to USD 5. These values place the income range just below and above the country's national minimum wage, which changed from USD 2 to USD 2.60 in 2019 (Ministry of Farmers in this study earned approximately between 3000 and 7000 United States Dollars (USD) in annual revenue. The average farmer spent 5.6 h per day farming (or approximately, 5 days per week), resulting in an hourly income range of roughly USD 2 to USD 5. These values place the income range just below and above the country's national minimum wage, which changed from USD 2 to USD 2.60 in 2019 (Ministry of Labour 2021). Some farmers may be more capable of living

on a minimum wage than others, depending on their living situation, the number of dependents, household size, and other factors. However, living on a minimum wage can be difficult because it may not cover the costs of acquiring basic needs such as food, transportation, and medical care. Additionally, farmers who earn a minimum wage may have difficulty saving money, investing, or planning for their future. Certainly, disruptions to income-earning capacity because of climate risks can push some farmers below the poverty line. It is, therefore, essential to characterise local climate risks to safeguard the livelihood of farmers. Understanding climate risks is necessary for developing appropriate measures to improve the adaptive capacity of farmers.

As reported by the Ministry of Planning and Development (2019), the twin-island state of Trinidad and Tobago is vulnerable to climate changes, such as rises in temperature, changes in rainfall, increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide, saltwater intrusion, extreme weather events and sea level rise. According to Mohammed et al. (2019), the mean annual temperature in Trinidad and Tobago has increased by approximately 0.6 ◦C since 1960, and the total yearly rainfall has increased by 37% over the past four decades. However, annual rainfall data do not provide insight into rainfall distribution throughout the year, particularly during dry seasons when precipitation levels are lower than in the wet season. The dry season is when farming activities are most likely to be compromised by water scarcity. Another study by Stone (2021) determined that precipitation levels during the dry seasons in Trinidad and Tobago have been statistically consistent.

Given that overall precipitation levels are increasing and dry seasons remain unchanged, it is expected that prevalent water scarcity issues in Trinidad and Tobago should be consistent or reduced over the years. Indirectly, however, other non-climate-related factors (such as poor land development and drainage) can exacerbate the effects of rainfall, leading to flooding events. The far-reaching effects of flooding events in Trinidad include damage to infrastructure, farm equipment, and machinery (Dixon 2018). Farmer demotivation, productivity reduction, and crop destruction were also identified as negative effects of flooding events in Trinidad. Flood-related issues can affect the profitability of farming operations.

Recent studies found that the farmers' choice of crop grown has been impacted by climate change. For example, certain species of corn and beans are more tolerant to drought than other crops (Peyster 2016). Whenever access to water is limited, farmers who choose to grow these drought-tolerant species of crops would be more capable of maintaining crop yield and profitability. Several crops are monitored by the Ministry of Planning and Development (2022) (Table 1). Data are unavailable on the extent to which a crop species is vulnerable to climate change. This information can inform farmers on alternative crop options that would be more resilient to future climate states.


**Table 1.** Food Crops Grown and Monitored in Trinidad and Tobago (Ministry of Planning and Development 2022).

Source: Authors' compilation based on data from Ministry of Planning and Development (2022).
