*6.3. Extreme Temperatures and Employment*

Violence in hot weather is not a new phenomenon, as with the case of Trinidad and Tobago, other countries such as South Africa have found that temperature changes can have a profound effect on the psychology and behavior of perpetrators and their victims. Where extreme weather may bring about a sense of discomfort, emotional instability, mood disturbances, eroding well-being, irritability, confusion, anger, and aggression, which together may increase the likelihood of violence against one's partner or family members (Chersich et al. 2019). For this reason, when related to variations in temperature, this type of abuse, according to Henke and Hsu (2020), reduces to a form of expressive violence, which is aggression that occurs as an emotional response to frustration. This is further supported by the fact that countries in warmer regions of the world are more likely to exhibit higher rates of violence and dangerous crime during hotter weather. Such conditions have led to higher rates of physical and sexual violence and even cases of femicide.

Interestingly enough, Henke and Hsu (2020) explain that if the victim of domestic violence is employed and has job opportunities regardless of the industry of employment, then this often protects them from experiencing temperature-based violence, as the victim has greater bargaining power. It is noted, however, that while the victims of domestic violence can be employed in any industry, some sectors are more labor intensive such as in the areas of agricultural/farming and garment construction such as in the case of Bangladesh and Ghana, and victims may be more exposed to heat stress and extreme weather events, which could lead to higher instances of extreme violence (Anderson Hoffner et al. 2021; Glazebrook et al. 2020).

#### *6.4. Sexual Gender-Based Violence (SGBV)*

As climate change events restrict access to resources, when conflict arises, so too does the incidence of sexual and gender-based violence. This is because the environmental conditions created by natural disasters as well as the COVID-19 pandemic not only worsen the inequalities that victims in Trinidad and Tobago may also experience but may provide the perfect disguise for the perpetrators of sexual gender-based violence to target victims (Clark et al. 2022). Given that legal restraints, social protective measures, social networks, and health care services may be weakened during the occurrence of natural disasters, perpetrators may use these conditions as an intentional tactic to intimidate their victims. This effectively displaces victims, as well as migrant and refugee victims of abuse, who are now more than before vulnerable to entering into the sex-trade industry, as well as child marriages in response to their desperation for necessities, food insecurity, mental stress, mental trauma, post-traumatic stress disorders, as well as privacy and protection (Ovenden and Daalen 2022; Desai and Mandal 2021).

Even though climate change plays an important role in the spread of sexual gender-based violence during climate change disasters, victims continue to be victimized because there is not only an international legal instrument that adequately addresses such violence, but several major United Nations (UN) Climate Negotiations such as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)—1992, Kyoto Protocol—1997, and the Paris Agreement—1995, and several earlier Conference of the Parties (COP), barely addressed SGBV in great detail (United Nations (UN) 1992; United Nations Climate Change (UNCC) 2022; Environmental and Energy Study Institute (EESI) 2022). As a result, women and victims of domestic violence will continue to experience verbal, physical, and sexual violence in their communities.

#### *6.5. Environmental Degradation*

Apart from climate change events, natural and fabricated environmental degradation influences the intensity of domestic violence and violence against women. From a legislative and climate change policy perspective, not only is there little inclusion and representation of women, but the rights of Indigenous communities in countries such as Indonesia, who are also disproportionately affected by environmental degradation caused by problems such as deforestation, land disturbances, pollution, landfills, and overpopulation, are hardly considered

(Csevar 2021). As a result, this often serves to worsen their current vulnerabilities inclusive of gender-based domestic violence, as well as the marginalization and social exclusion of these Indigenous communities and communities in low- and middle-income countries.

One example where environmental degradation through water insecurity has fueled violence occurred in Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America, and South Asia, where prolonged periods of drought forced women to not only venture far distances outside of their communities to search for water, but also put themselves at risk to verbal, physical and sexual violence, as well as being raped and abducted by strangers such as armed groups (Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) 2005), not to mention the risk of intimate partner violence dealt with by their partners when they fail to secure water and food resources to meet the needs of the household (Tallman et al. 2022).

#### **7. Challenges and Future Perspectives for Trinidad and Tobago**

Based on the recommendations put forward by United Nations Women (UN Women) (2017), one must ensure that service providers and survivors realize that not only physical violence is violence but there is also psychological abuse, verbal abuse, financial abuse, and emotional abuse as well. Education on the domestic violence act and what constitutes abuse is crucial for building awareness of abuse. This can go towards recognizing, preventing, and addressing abuse. Schools, as part of their social education, should incorporate this in their curricula. Domestic violence is too pervasive for society to do anything. It must also be noted that domestic violence can ensue from as early as the beginning of a relationship. Observing red flags concerning the types of abuse can auger well for prevention and leaving a relationship early.

Many women experience victim blame from persons in society, for example, the police, family members and random persons. This can prevent the reporting of the violence for months. Women may be embarrassed and shamed, leading to non-seeking help behavior for counselling, community programs, clinics and other supportive interventions that are available. Domestic violence can create both intrapersonal and interpersonal conflicts. Understanding abuse can help women build their self-esteem, develop healthy self-concepts, and realize that they are worthy of their place in society.

Resources need to be strengthened. Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) are fund deficient and struggle to employ staff, finance staff training and enhance existing programs. More funding is needed to hire social workers and counsellors. When social workers and counsellors are stretched, the interventions could be compromised, and clients may not feel that their needs are being met. This is an added burden that they do not need. Shelters may need the presence of child psychologists as children could be particularly affected by domestic violence and may wake up screaming in the night and or have behavioral challenges. Shelters can neither address mental illness nor suicide attempts. Women who fall into this category can become invisible to services and have greater difficulty accessing shelter

and support. Further to this, state resources are also too limited and inadequate to address domestic violence. Although this issue is dealt with in ministries and units, there is a need for greater coordination. Relationship factors such as patriarchy, economic stress, men's multiple partners and substance abuse to name a few exacerbate women's vulnerability to domestic violence. The sexual violence of rape in marriages or with partners needs greater attention, as it is under-discussed in forums. Economic insecurity is likely to increase because of COVID-19 and with-it women's and men's dependence on each other.

Women must be able to negotiate safely for finances to support themselves and their children in households, especially those who are dependent on partners for financial support. Women may feel alone and do not know where to turn despite the range of services available by both the State and NGOs. They remain at risk, especially when they leave violent relationships. There are inadequate provisions for their immediate and sustained protection. Interventions must be fast, immediate and consistent. The protection system is not effective enough. Holistic support is sorely needed.
