*5.3. Losses and Irradiation Utilization Factor*

Reducing losses in the PV system is a significant challenge to address. In the FPV system, the soiling losses due to dust particles ranges from 1% to 3%, while in the landbased PV system it is 2% to 5%. Additionally, the optimum temperature of the PV panel is maintained by the automatic water evaporative cooling mechanism, while a land-based PV system requires separate water or air-based cooling systems. In the present study, with both types of orientation as listed in Table 3, the temperature loss is less slightly lesser in polycrystalline PV modules.


**Table 3.** Losses in the FPV system.

Eventually, shading losses due to near shading objects, including trees and buildings, and far shading objects including mountains and embankment of the reservoir can highly impact the total DC output of the PV system. In the present study, it is found to be higher in the portrait mode of panel arrangement than in the landscape condition. The increase in the shading losses of about 34% while placing the PV panels vertically is mainly due to shades from the top end of front row panels on the bottom edges of the subsequent row of panels. This increase in the shading loss is the key reason for the reduction in the tilt orientation factor (TOF) and solar access factor (SAF) [35].
