*3.2. Settlement Distribution in Relation to the Natural Environment*

In the development of the settlement, it was first and foremost closely linked to the natural geographical environment. It cannot be separated from the favourable conditions provided by the environment, but is also subject to various restrictions imposed by it. Therefore, this section uses GIS to perform elevation, slope, aspect, and buffer zone calculations to explore the distribution characteristics and evolutionary features of settlements.

The DEM data were overlaid with settlement points to produce maps of the settlement's elevation, slope, aspect, and buffer zone distribution (Figures 5–8). Based on the elevation calculation and statistics, it shows that neolithic settlements were mainly distributed below 200 m above sea level, and 71.3% of the settlements were located between 0–100 m (Figure 5, Table 2). There were only scattered settlements in other elevation intervals. During the Shang and Zhou periods, settlements were still mainly distributed below 200 m above sea level, but the altitude range of distribution was expanded, and the number of settlements distributed in higher-altitude areas increased significantly, even reaching up to 868 m. During the period of "Qin to Northern and Southern Dynasties', the distribution of settlements contracted to lower altitudes and was mainly concentrated in the 0–100 m altitude range, with the number of settlements in this range reaching 83.6%.

**Figure 5.** Elevation distribution of settlements in different periods.

**Figure 6.** Slope distribution of settlements in different periods.

**Figure 7.** Aspect distribution of settlements in different periods.

**Figure 8.** Relationship between settlement distribution and buffer zones in different periods.


**Table 2.** Elevation distribution of settlements in different periods.

The slope and aspect refer to the spatial orientation and inclination of the local surface slope. The magnitude of the slope directly affects the scale and intensity of surface material flow and energy conversion. The greater the slope, the greater the likelihood of mudslides and landslides [11]. In the statistics and analysis of the slope, this study uses the following grading: a slope less than 3 degrees is very suitable for human habitation, a slope from 3◦–6◦ is relatively suitable for human habitation, and a slope from 6◦–10◦ is not well suitable for human habitation (Table 3). The study found that the number of settlements in the "very suitable" and "relatively suitable" zones was high, with the sum of the two zones accounting for 63.2%, 61.9%, and 58% of the total number of settlements in the three periods. At the same time, there are a considerable number of settlements in the "not well suited" zone in each period, while the number of settlements in the "unsuitable" zone is relatively small. The aspect is one of the important factors that determine the local reception of sunlight and redistribution of solar radiation on the surface of the earth, directly causing local differences in climate characteristics [11]. In the calculation of the slope's direction, the value is taken as 0–360◦, with due north as 0 and increasing clockwise. The study defined 90◦–270◦ as good and quite good light, 45◦–90◦ and 270◦–315◦ as comparatively bad light, and 315◦–360◦ and 0–45◦ as bad light. According to the distribution and statistics of settlements on the slope direction in different periods (Figure 7, Table 4), it is found that settlements are mainly distributed in the 90◦–270◦ interval with good and quite good light, and the percentage of the number of settlements in this interval in each period is 48.4%, 49.3%, and 49.7%. The proportion of data remains stable and shows a slight upward trend. The number of settlements distributed in other intervals is low, with 23.7%, 23.4%, and 21.7% of settlements distributed in the comparatively bad interval in different periods, while 27.9%, 27.3%, and 28.6% of settlements were distributed in the bad interval in three periods.


**Table 3.** Slope distribution of settlements in different periods.

**Table 4.** Aspect distribution of settlements in different periods.


As rivers were the lifeline for early human survival and development, the relationship between settlements and rivers also needs to be fully considered. Through the calculation and statistics of the buffer zone (Figure 8, Table 5), there were 313, 311, and 309 settlements distributed within the 1000 m buffer zone of rivers in the Neolithic, Shang and Zhou, and Qin to Northern and Southern Dynasties periods, respectively. This number would be further increased if the tributaries of the river were included in the statistics.

**Table 5.** Number of settlements distributed in the buffer zone in different periods.


*3.3. Settlement Distribution Dominated by Different Elements*

In the process of settlement development, the dominant elements gradually became complicated. This section explores the distribution characteristics and evolutionary features of settlements by combining the distribution of settlements with the historical background and dominant cultural forms in which the settlements were located.

According to the above analysis, the Neolithic settlements were distributed in large numbers in the eastern part of the Taiyi Mountains. Specifically, they were concentrated in the flooded terraces and alluvial plains at the northeastern end of the mountains, forming a distinct centre. The formation of the monocentre was mainly influenced by both the geographic environment and the climate. The flooded terraces and alluvial plains in the western part of Weifang were flat and suitable for cultivation, and the higher terrain was protected from flooding, so the natural environment showed strong stability. Thus, it became an ideal place for ancient people to flourish and accumulate a large number of settlements. Other areas had fewer settlements due to their different environmental and climatic conditions. For example, the western part of the Luzhong region is low-lying and has little space for detouring compared with other regions. As for the environment and climate in that period, on one hand, the climate was warm and humid, with abundant precipitation and high river flows; on the other hand, the relatively high sea level caused a lowering of the specific drop of rivers entering the sea and an increase in water levels [12]. The dual influence of the climate and sea level caused the low-lying areas to be waterlogged, and flooding disasters were frequent. Therefore, these areas were not suitable for human survival, and the number of settlements was small.

The analysis of the settlements in the Shang and Zhou period shows that the main distribution of settlements in the Luzhong area was concentrated at the northern foot of the Taiyi Mountains, west to Zhangqiu, and east to the Neolithic centre. On the basis of the centre of the Neolithic settlements, a continuous belt was formed. In addition, a large number of settlements were also concentrated in the southwestern part of the Luzhong region. The reasons affecting the distribution of settlements at this stage were not only physical geography, but also economic geography and geopolitical structure. After 5 ka. B.P., the climate became less warm and humid, but remained relatively mild until 4 ka BP. The frequency of arboreal pollen decreased while that of pollen for the drought-tolerant plants such as Artemisia and Chenopodiaceae increased in northwestern Shandong. In addition, no remains of Chinese alligator have been discovered in the sites during the late Dawenkou—Longshan cultural stage. It showed that the climate had a cooling and drying trend [12]. This trend became even more prominent around 4 ka BP. This was clearly recorded in the sediments of the northwestern Shandong Plain [13], the central Shandong Province [14], and the Yishu River Basin [15]. After 3.5 ka BP, the climate fluctuated slightly, but generally stabilised with a mild and dry character. The evolutionary trends in the paleoclimate of the Shandong region are consistent with those of China's paleoclimate [16], but differ in specific years due to geographical characteristics. In the western plains, due to the lowering of the sea level and the drying of the climate, the natural environment of the low-lying areas, which was previously unsuitable for human existence, improved, and these areas were gradually exploited on a large scale. In addition, the development of the east–west avenue that formed at the northern foot of the Taiyi Mountains [17] likewise promoted the development of settlements. Meanwhile, with the retreat of the sea, the distribution of settlements rapidly advanced northward. The elevation analysis of the settlement distribution also shows that the lowest elevation of the settlement distribution is below 1 m, or even close to 0 m. The large number of settlements distributed at the western end of the Taiyi Mountains was mainly influenced by the geopolitical structure on the basis of its geographical conditions. This area was the closest to the central area of the Shang Dynasty, so the distribution of settlements was quite dense [18].

From the Qin Dynasties to the Northern and Southern Dynasties, two centres of settlement distribution were formed at the northern foot of the mountain range and in the Zhucheng area. Compared with the previous period, the continuity and changes were equally obvious. The continuity was that the settlement distribution centre at the northern foot of the mountain range continued. The first thing that changed was a reduction in the concentrated distribution in the northern foothills of the mountain range; settlements in the west decreased compared to the previous period. More importantly, there was a new centre in Zhucheng. The formation of the new centre was influenced by various factors, such as the natural environment, humanities, and politics. During the Shang and Zhou Dynasties, Zhucheng was located at the border of two countries for a long time; in the Spring and Autumn period, the northern part belonged to Qi and the southern part to Lu; in the Warring States period, after Chu destroyed Lu, most of Zhucheng belonged to Qi [19]. The location of the border and the frequent wars restricted the development of regional settlements. According to historical documents, in 219 BCE, the First Emperor of Qin 'moved 30,000 households under the Terrace' [20]. If each household had only three people, there would be nearly 100,000 people. The population growth brought about rapid local development, and the number of settlements rose, forming a distinct centre.

#### **4. Discussion**

From the above analysis, we can see that there was human activity in the Luzhong area in the Stone Age, and a large number of settlement construction activities began in the Neolithic period. The Neolithic period, the Shang and Zhou period, and the Qin to Northern and Southern Dynasties period were the three high points of the development of settlements. In these three periods, the centres of the large-scale distribution of settlements changed from a "single centre" to a "continuous belt" to a "double centre". By the time of the "Qin to Northern and Southern Dynasties" period, the settlement system in the Luzhong region had been formed, and the cities, towns, and villages of today were basically developed on this basis. At the same time, under the construction policy of "strong trunk and weak branches" of the central government, the construction of habitats in Shandong began to be reduced [18]. Since then, most of the existing settlements were inherited and only sporadically built. From the perspective of the whole country, the interactions between the settlements in the Luzhong region and the surrounding areas grew from a strong position in the early days [6], gradually developing into the country system [18], and becoming one of the most important components of Chinese civilisation. The ancient settlements in the Luzhong region showed continuous development over time, and spatially, they show the characteristics of a main body continuing local changes.

Based on the calculation and statistics concerning the elevation, slope, aspect, and buffer zone, it was found that most of the settlements in different periods were located below 100 m in elevation (Figure 9), and based on further detailed analysis of the 0–100 altitude interval, the settlements were mainly concentrated in the 20–60 m interval. With the retreat of the sea and improvements in technology, the settlement distribution expanded to the sea, on the one hand, and the lowest elevation of the site distribution in the Shang and Zhou periods reached 1 m or even approached 0 m. On the other hand, the distribution also expanded to higher elevations. Human settlements also appeared at elevations of 700–900 m in the Shang and Zhou periods. On the whole, the distribution of settlements was gradually reduced by the limitations on altitude, and the distribution gradually spread more widely. In terms of slope, settlement sites tended to be chosen in flat areas with slopes of less than 6◦, and more than 50% of the settlements in all periods were located in such zones (Figure 10). The flat areas allow for easy access to travel, water, and agricultural production. The fact that the number of settlements in the 3◦–6◦ slope interval is greater than in the flattest interval should be the result of a combination of factors, such as distance from water sources, slope direction, altitude, etc. Although ancient people preferred to live on flat terrain, some still chose to survive on sloping areas in order to survive because of the limited resources available on flat terrain. In contrast, settlements are still found in areas with slopes ≥10◦ or even >20◦, which should be related to military or defensive functions. In terms of the aspect, the number of settlements located in the good and quite good light intervals was significantly higher than that in the bad and comparatively bad intervals in all three periods (Figure 11). It is therefore inferred that the choice of site for the settlement is strongly influenced by the direction of the slope, and that more settlements will choose to face south or as far south as possible. The south-facing slopes are less exposed to the cold northwesterly winds and receive more light in the cold winter months. More importantly, the south-facing slopes will be more vegetated due to the abundance of sunlight, which means they can provide more food resources than poorly lit slopes and are more suitable for human survival. The analysis of the buffer zone found that the proportion of settlements located within the buffer zone remained at around 50% in all three periods, indicating a high demand for a relatively stable water system.

**Figure 9.** Elevation statistics of the distribution of settlements in different periods.

**Figure 10.** Slope statistics of the distribution of settlements in different periods.

**Figure 11.** Aspect statistics of the distribution of settlements in different periods.

#### **5. Conclusions**

This study constructed a geographic information database of ancient settlements in the Luzhong region and mapped the dynamic overlay of the spatial–temporal distribution of these ancient settlements, in addition to visualising the historical distribution information of ancient settlements in the region. The database contains information on key attributes of the settlements in the region, providing a solid foundation for further research and practice. The map helps to build a historical context for the development of settlements in the Luzhong region and deepens the understanding of the development of traditional settlements in ancient China. Through the analysis of data on nearly 2000 settlements, the spatial and temporal distribution patterns of ancient settlements in the Luzhong region were derived; the development of ancient settlements in the region experienced three peaks of settlement construction during the Neolithic period, the Shang and Zhou periods, and the Qin to Northern and Southern Dynasties period. The distribution centres of the settlements experienced changes from a "single centre" to a "continuous belt" and to a "double centre". In different periods, the settlements were mainly distributed in alluvial plains with elevations below 100 m and with a flat topography (slope < 6). They also presented the characteristic of living by water. The settlements in the Luzhong region continuously developed over time, and the spatial development showed the characteristics of continuous local changes in the main body. Through an understanding of the distribution, morphology, and development of ancient settlements in the Luzhong area, we can glimpse settlement development in the core region of Chinese civilisation.

This study integrated the research methods of habitat and environmental science, archaeology, and cultural geography. It also used quantitative analysis tools, such as GIS, to analyse the spatial and temporal distribution and morphological characteristics of ancient settlements in the Luzhong region. The comprehensive investigation and systematic sorting of the spatial–temporal distribution of ancient settlements in the Luzhong region can enrich case studies of settlements and provide theoretical support for the conservation

of the related cultural heritage. At the same time, as they are the predecessors to today's cities, towns, and villages, the study of these settlements also sheds light on the planning and construction of contemporary human settlements. In addition, the distribution of settlements in different periods is an important reflection of the interactions between people and places in the region. The study of the spatial–temporal distribution of ancient settlements in the Luzhong region can help to form a systematic understanding of the trends in the formation and development of the spatial system in the area in order to further explore the harmonious development of human–land relations and build sustainable cities and communities.

**Author Contributions:** Conceptualisation, M.T. and B.L.; methodology, B.L.; software, M.T.; validation, M.T., B.L. and Z.L.; formal analysis, M.T.; investigation, Z.L.; resources, M.T.; data curation, M.T.; writing—original draft preparation, M.T.; writing—review and editing, B.L. and Z.L.; visualisation, M.T.; supervision, Z.L.; project administration, B.L.; funding acquisition, Z.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

**Funding:** This research received no external funding.

**Data Availability Statement:** Not applicable.

**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.

#### **References**


**Qianda Zhuang 1,2,\*, Mengying Wan <sup>3</sup> and Guoquan Zheng 3,\***


**Abstract:** The folklore of intangible cultural heritage (FICH) is mainly expressed in folkloric activities, which include traditional festivals, living customs, production practices, folk beliefs, life rituals and folk costumes. The more reasonable and efficient ways to achieve conservation and transmission of FICH have become an urgent problem to be solved. Landscape presentation offers a potential method to address that by excavating the landscape characteristics of FICH based on its in-depth connotation and development history. This study aims to explore the cultural connotation of the FICH and extract the elements of landscape design, thus presenting and expressing the FICH using landscape as a carrier, to achieve the conservation and inheritance of the FICH. This research took the Taishun Hundred-family Feast culture, one of FICH in Sankui Town, Taishun County, China, as the study case, and extracted the landscape design elements in FICH after its content excavation and conducted presentation with cultural objectification, landscape narrative and contextualization. The results showed that the Hundred-family Feast culture contains rich landscape genes which can be divided into the ritual culture, food culture, festival culture and spiritual culture. Some of the elements in the Hundred-family Feast culture in terms of patterns, forms and colours for the content of activities, material carriers and spiritual places were also extracted for the landscape presentation. According to the different types and places of the Hundred-family Feast culture activities, the centre of Sankui Town is divided into four landscape thematic areas, namely the Hundred-family Feast cultural entrance experience zone, the food culture experience zone, ritual culture experience zone, and activity performance experience zone. The landscape element and spatial carriers were designed and illustrated for conserving and recovering the Hundred-family Feast culture, respectively. This study innovatively analyses the FICH from the perspective of the characteristics and constituent elements of the landscape and establishes a more reasonable framework system for the method of landscape presentation of the FICH in a structured and comprehensive manner. It enriches the theoretical system of intangible cultural heritage protection and its inheritance via landscape presentation methods for folklore activities.

**Keywords:** landscape presentation; intangible cultural heritage; rural landscape; folk activity; folk landscape
