3.3.1. Beijing Urban Planning Outline

The Beijing Wall was expanded and transformed over time into the Jungdo of the Jin Dynasty, the Daedo of the Yuan Dynasty, and finally the Beijing Castle of the Ming and Qing Dynasties. The city's layout is based on the principles of Kaogongji and reflects Confucian and Feng Shui values in its placement [32] (Figure 2).

After Japan took over Beijing in 1937, the Japanese population was increasing at a rapid pace, which subsequently raised needs for infrastructure and residential buildings. In addition, as Japan designated Beijing as an important base for military control and economy, urban planning and construction activities were conducted accordingly.

The Provisional Government of the Republic of China was established in December 1937, and the Reformed Government of the Republic of China was created in Nanjing in March 1938. Combining the two governments, the Reorganized National Government of the Republic of China was established with Wang Jingwei as a head of State. In 1938, the General Office of Construction was created in the North China Political Affairs Commission, and the City Bureau was placed thereunder [14,15]. In 1938, a plan was established by Sado Toshihisa and Yamazaki Keiichi, who led urban planning in Harbin [14,15]. In November 1938, Shiobara Saburo was sent to survey the city, and after a few proposals, the final version of Beijing Urban Planning Outline was determined [14,15].

The most distinctive feature of the Beijing Urban Planning Outline was that it was a new city-centered plan. Instead of the old city center, it focused on building new cities in western suburbs focused on administrative and residential functions and eastern suburbs designated as industrial districts. Meanwhile, it only emphasized the preservation of historical places or the maintenance of urban functions inside the city walls. For the construction of western and eastern suburbs, it was planned to build new cities away from the existing city, not to expand the old city center in Beijing [14,15].

As the war intensified, subsequent plans were put on hold. Nonetheless, the Beijing City Government continued to be successful in building new cities in western and eastern suburbs in the post-war period.

#### 3.3.2. Applicable Building Codes

On 1 October 1940, the General Office of Construction announced the Urban Construction Tentative Rules and designated the rules governing zoning, building lines, and building form regulations.

#### **4. Urban Planning Comparison**

Beginning with Japan, modern urban planning proceeded with Taipei, Seoul, and Beijing, which were colonized by Japan, based on Tokyo's urban planning but with some updates and modifications. The present study compares the cities by each item from urban renewal to city planning law.

In Table 1, the light gray represents major events in city plan revision, while the dark gray highlights major events in city planning legislation. The introduction of the Urban Planning Act occurred in the order of Tokyo, Taipei, and Kyungsung, with Beijing being introduced later due to the delay in occupation. In regard to urban renewal, Taipei was ahead of Kyungsung, but ultimately, the City Planning Law indicates that Joseon was quicker. Table 1 illustrates where Japan's focus on urban planning was in East Asia during each period.

The purpose of urban renewal varies across the cities, and Tokyo's urban renewal was planned to facilitate the city's fire protection measures, sanitation, and transport convenience. Among the colonized cities, urban renewal was taking place at the fastest pace in Taipei, where it originally began with sanitation issues (Table 2).


**Table 2.** Comparison of Urban Planning in Tokyo, Taipei, Kyeongseong, and Beijing.

In Seoul, urban renewal was planned to provide transport convenience and create the outer look of a modern city. The Urban Renewal Committee, an organization for planning, was established in Tokyo in 1885, Taipei in 1898, and Seoul in 1921. In Taipei, sanitation issues such as pests emerged as one of the biggest problems. Goto invited Burton to give ¯ advice on sanitation works and urban renewal was implemented, focusing on water and sewage works. One of the notable features of Taipei's urban renewal was that it was implemented from the 1st to the 6th Plan from 1895 to 1932. In addition, it began as a plan for water and sewage works and had expanded into road network and downtown expansion (Table 2).

Seoul's urban renewal was divided depending on who planned urban renewal into the one implemented by the Resident-General and the other by the Government-General. Furthermore, as urban renewal progressed, the City Planning Ordinance was planned at the same time. When planning urban renewal, all these four cities had a limitation that they reviewed the building code but did not include it (Table 2).

The committee for the city planning law was established in each of the cities: Tokyo in 1919, Seoul in 1933, Taipei in 1934, and Beijing in 1938. During this period, their city planning law included the building code. Tokyo's City Planning Law was led by Goto, who ¯ initiated urban renewal in Taipei. Seoul's urban planning was led by the Resident-General, the Government-General, or the Inspector-General of Political Affairs. It is worth noting that Inspector-General Shirou Ikegami of Political Affairs formerly served as Osaka Mayer and led urban planning in Osaka (Table 2).

Hence, Tokyo's urban planning and that of Taipei, Seoul, and Beijing cities, colonized by Japan, influenced each other when they were established, as the people in charge were intertwined and involved in multiple cities [33].
