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Editor’s Choice Articles

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

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16 pages, 5607 KiB  
Article
Impact of Climate Change on the Energy Consumption of Passenger Car Vehicles
by Samuel Hasselwander, Anton Galich and Simon Nieland
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13(8), 146; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13080146 - 3 Aug 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3058
Abstract
The energy consumption of passenger vehicles is affected by the physical properties of the environment. The ambient temperature in particular has a significant impact on the operating energy consumption. To quantify the impact of a changed climate on vehicles with different drivetrain systems, [...] Read more.
The energy consumption of passenger vehicles is affected by the physical properties of the environment. The ambient temperature in particular has a significant impact on the operating energy consumption. To quantify the impact of a changed climate on vehicles with different drivetrain systems, we set up a model that calculates the change in energy demand with respect to multiple global warming levels. In particular, the effect of rising temperatures on the energy consumption of battery electric vehicles and vehicles with internal combustion engines was investigated. Our results indicate that climate change will likely lead to a rise in energy consumption of vehicles with an internal combustion engine. This is mostly due to the increase in cabin climatization needs caused by the higher ambient temperatures. At a global warming level (GWL) of 4.0 °C, the calculated annual energy consumption on average is 2.1% higher than without taking the climate-change-related changes in temperature into account. Battery electric vehicles, on the other hand, are expected to have a lower overall energy consumption (up to −2.4% at 4 °C GWL) in cold and moderate climate zones. They benefit from the lower heating needs during winter caused by global warming. Full article
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14 pages, 3804 KiB  
Article
Experimental Validation of an Automated Approach for Estimating the Efficiency and Heat Balance of Gearboxes Based on an Electrified Heavy Commercial Vehicle Axle
by Roland Uerlich, Sven Köller, Gordon Witham, Theo Koch and Lutz Eckstein
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13(8), 142; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13080142 - 2 Aug 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2573
Abstract
Freight transport accounts for about half of all distances travelled in Europe. Therefore, freight transport is one of the decisive factors for reducing greenhouse gases and air pollutants. For this reason, the electrification of road freight transport is being promoted as part of [...] Read more.
Freight transport accounts for about half of all distances travelled in Europe. Therefore, freight transport is one of the decisive factors for reducing greenhouse gases and air pollutants. For this reason, the electrification of road freight transport is being promoted as part of the project “BEV Goes eHighway—[BEE]”. The data basis for the modelling used in this project is an electric drive axle for a heavy commercial vehicle, which was developed in the “Concept-ELV2” project. Based on the results of the previous project, the methodological tools that were developed are presented in this paper. These allow a wide range of possible powertrain topologies to be considered at the concept stage of development based on an estimation of future system characteristics. For this purpose, the components are automatically designed taking into account the mutual influence of the requirements and are evaluated in the context of the holistic system. This publication focuses on the efficiency and thermal evaluation of the transmission stages of the addressed electric drive units and validates the developed models using a pototypically designed electric commercial vehicle axle. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue EVS35—International Electric Vehicle Symposium and Exhibition (Oslo, Norway))
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26 pages, 1216 KiB  
Article
Why Do Pricing Rules Matter? Electricity Market Design with Electric Vehicle Participants
by Felipe Maldonado and Andrea Saumweber
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13(8), 143; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13080143 - 2 Aug 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3324
Abstract
The energy transition, a process in which fossil fuels are being replaced by cleaner sources of energy, comes with many challenges. The intrinsic uncertainty associated with renewable energy sources has led to a search for complementary technologies to tackle those issues. In recent [...] Read more.
The energy transition, a process in which fossil fuels are being replaced by cleaner sources of energy, comes with many challenges. The intrinsic uncertainty associated with renewable energy sources has led to a search for complementary technologies to tackle those issues. In recent years, the use of electric vehicles (EVs) has been studied as an alternative for storage, leading to a much more complex market structure. Small participants are now willing to provide energy, helping to keep the desired balance of supply and demand. In this paper, we analyse the electricity spot market, providing a model where EVs decide to participate depending on the underlying conditions. We study pricing rules adapted from versions currently in use in electricity markets, and focus on two of them for our experimental settings: integer programming (IP) and extended locational marginal (ELM) pricing. We particularly pay attention to the properties those prices might satisfy, and numerically test them under some scenarios representing different levels of participation of EVs and an active demand side. Our results suggest that IP pricing generally derives larger individual uplift payments and further produces public prices that are not well aligned with the final payments of market participants, leading to distortions in the market. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Electric Vehicles Integration in Smart Grids)
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15 pages, 1197 KiB  
Review
Charging Electric Vehicles Today and in the Future
by Jennifer Leijon and Cecilia Boström
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13(8), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13080139 - 29 Jul 2022
Cited by 31 | Viewed by 10432
Abstract
It is expected that more vehicles will be electrified in the coming years. This will require reliable access to charging infrastructure in society, and the charging will include data exchange between different actors. The aim of this review article is to provide an [...] Read more.
It is expected that more vehicles will be electrified in the coming years. This will require reliable access to charging infrastructure in society, and the charging will include data exchange between different actors. The aim of this review article is to provide an overview of recent scientific literature on different charging strategies, including for example battery swapping, conductive- and inductive charging, and what data that may be needed for charging of different types of electric vehicles. The methodology of the paper includes investigating recent scientific literature and reports in the field, with articles from 2019 to 2022. The contribution of this paper is to provide a broad overview of different charging strategies for different types of electric vehicles, that could be useful today or in the coming years. The literature review shows that data utilized for charging or discharging includes for example information on the battery, temperature, electricity cost, and location. It is concluded that the preferred charging strategy for an electric vehicle may depend on the type of electric vehicle and when, where, and how the vehicle is used. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Charging Infrastructure for EVs)
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27 pages, 11759 KiB  
Article
Numerical Simulation of Cooling Plate Using K-Epsilon Turbulence Model to Cool Down Large-Sized Graphite/LiFePO4 Battery at High C-Rates
by Satyam Panchal, Krishna Gudlanarva, Manh-Kien Tran, Münür Sacit Herdem, Kirti Panchal, Roydon Fraser and Michael Fowler
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13(8), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13080138 - 28 Jul 2022
Cited by 55 | Viewed by 6668
Abstract
In this paper, an analogous study of the velocity and temperature profiles inside microchannel cooling plates (with hydraulic diameter of 6 mm), placed on a large pouch-type LiFePO4 battery, is presented using both the laboratory and simulation techniques. For this, we used [...] Read more.
In this paper, an analogous study of the velocity and temperature profiles inside microchannel cooling plates (with hydraulic diameter of 6 mm), placed on a large pouch-type LiFePO4 battery, is presented using both the laboratory and simulation techniques. For this, we used reverse engineering (RE), computed tomography (CT) scanning, Detroit Engineering Products (DEP) MeshWorks 8.0 for surface meshing of the cold plate, and STAR CCM+ for steady-state simulation. The numerical study was conducted for 20 A (1C) and 40 A (2C) and different operating temperatures. For experimental work, three heat flux sensors were used and were intentionally pasted at distributed locations, out of which one was situated near the negative tab (anode) and the other was near the positive tab (cathode), because the heat production is high near electrodes and the one near the mid body. Moreover, the realizable k-ε turbulence model in STAR CCM+ is used for simulation of the stream in a microchannel cooling plate, and the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations under constant current (CC) discharge load cases are studied. Later, the validation is conducted with the lab data to ensure sufficient cooling occurs for the required range of temperature. The outcome of this research work shows that as C-rates and ambient temperature increase, the temperature contours of the cooling plates also increase. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Power Train Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) with Range Extenders)
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18 pages, 4564 KiB  
Article
Comparative Study of Permanent Magnet, Conventional, and Advanced Induction Machines for Traction Applications
by Tayfun Gundogdu, Zi-Qiang Zhu and Ching Chuen Chan
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13(8), 137; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13080137 - 28 Jul 2022
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4641
Abstract
This paper investigates and compares the torque-generating capabilities and electromagnetic performance of advanced non-overlapping winding induction machines (AIM), conventional induction machines (CIM), and interior-permanent magnet (IPM) machines for electric vehicle (EV) applications. All investigated machines are designed based on the specifications of the [...] Read more.
This paper investigates and compares the torque-generating capabilities and electromagnetic performance of advanced non-overlapping winding induction machines (AIM), conventional induction machines (CIM), and interior-permanent magnet (IPM) machines for electric vehicle (EV) applications. All investigated machines are designed based on the specifications of the Toyota Prius 2010 IPM machine. The steady-state and flux-weakening performance characteristics are calculated by employing the 2D finite element method and MatLab, and the obtained results are quantitatively compared. Furthermore, the torque-generating capabilities of three machines are investigated for different electric loadings, and the machine having the highest torque-generating capability is determined as AIM. Moreover, the major parameters affecting the torque-generating capability, such as magnetic saturation and magnet demagnetization, are examined in depth. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Novel Permanent Magnet and Magnetless Machines and Control for Electric Vehicles)
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27 pages, 6115 KiB  
Article
Optimizing Public Charging: An Integrated Approach Based on GIS and Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis
by Ali Khalife, Tu-Anh Fay and Dietmar Göhlich
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13(8), 131; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13080131 - 25 Jul 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3835
Abstract
The rise in electric vehicle uptake has reshaped the German mobility landscape at unprecedented speed and scale. While public charging is pivotal to growing the electric vehicle market, municipalities can play a crucial role in accelerating the energy transition in transport. This research [...] Read more.
The rise in electric vehicle uptake has reshaped the German mobility landscape at unprecedented speed and scale. While public charging is pivotal to growing the electric vehicle market, municipalities can play a crucial role in accelerating the energy transition in transport. This research aims to assist municipalities in planning their strategic rollouts of public charging infrastructure in size and location. In the first step, charging demand is estimated based on four development scenarios in 2030 of EV adoption and public charging. In a second step, a geospatial analysis was performed on the study area. Supply and demand criteria were considered to reflect the attractiveness of each location on a grid map. While the supply criteria represent constraints related to infrastructure availability, the demand criteria are categorized into three dimensions: residential, commercial, and leisure. The prioritization of demand criteria was derived from the municipality’s input using the analytical hierarchy process method to reflect its strategy. After obtaining the suitability index map, a cluster analysis was performed using a k-means clustering algorithm to ensure adequate geographical coverage of the charging network. Finally, the proposed charging stations in each scenario were allocated to the top-scoring locations, establishing a municipal public charging network. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Charging Infrastructure for EVs)
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26 pages, 10174 KiB  
Article
Simultaneity Factors of Public Electric Vehicle Charging Stations Based on Real-World Occupation Data
by Christopher Hecht, Jan Figgener and Dirk Uwe Sauer
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13(7), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13070129 - 20 Jul 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3514
Abstract
Charging of electric vehicles may cause stress on the electricity grid. Grid planners need clarity regarding likely grid loading when creating extensions. In this paper, we analyse the simultaneity factor (SF) or peak power of public electric vehicle charging stations with different recharging [...] Read more.
Charging of electric vehicles may cause stress on the electricity grid. Grid planners need clarity regarding likely grid loading when creating extensions. In this paper, we analyse the simultaneity factor (SF) or peak power of public electric vehicle charging stations with different recharging strategies. This contribution is the first of its kind in terms of data quantity and, therefore, representativeness. We found that the choice of charging strategy had a massive impact on the electricity grid. The current “naive” charging strategy of plugging in at full power and recharging until the battery is full cause limited stress. Price-optimised recharging strategies, in turn, create high power peaks. The SFs varied by strategy, particularly when using several connectors at once. Compared to the SF of a single connector in naive charging, the SF decreased by approximately 50% for groups of 10 connectors. For a set of 1000 connectors, the SF was between 10% and 20%. Price-optimised strategies showed a much slower decay where, in some cases, groups of 10 connectors still had an SF of 100%. For sets of 1000 connectors, the SF of price-optimised strategies was twice that of the naive strategy. Overall, we found that price optimisation did not reduce electricity purchase costs by much, especially compared to peak-related network expansion costs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Technologies in Electrification of Urban Mobility)
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17 pages, 14617 KiB  
Article
From Traditional to Electrified Urban Road Networks: The Integration of Fuzzy Analytic Hierarchy Process and GIS as a Tool to Define a Feasibility Index—An Italian Case Study
by Claudia Nodari, Maurizio Crispino and Emanuele Toraldo
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13(7), 116; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13070116 - 29 Jun 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2219
Abstract
To achieve sustainable development in the road sector, the use of Electric Vehicles (EVs) appears as a positive response to transport emissions. Among the available technologies, dynamic charging seems to overcome the main weakness points of EVs, even if it requires that traditional [...] Read more.
To achieve sustainable development in the road sector, the use of Electric Vehicles (EVs) appears as a positive response to transport emissions. Among the available technologies, dynamic charging seems to overcome the main weakness points of EVs, even if it requires that traditional roads (t-roads) be equipped with a system providing electricity for EVs. Thus, so-called electrified roads (e-roads) must be implemented into the urban road networks. Since it is not possible to electrify all roads simultaneously, and also to consider the demand needs of citizens, a selection criterion is essential. This research describes and develops a simple, self-explanatory, repeatable, and adaptable selection criterion aimed at helping city managers in prioritizing the roads of an urban network to be upgraded from t-road to e-road status. This method belongs to the so-called Multicriteria Spatial Decision Support Systems (MC-SDSS)—processes useful for solving spatial problems through the integration of multicriteria analysis (Fuzzy Analytic Hierarchy Process, F-AHP) with a geo-referenced data management and analysis tool (GIS). The developed algorithm is based on several criteria related to the infrastructure/transport, social and environmental areas. The result of the implemented method is a Feasibility Index (FI), able to prioritize the roads most eligible to be upgraded as e-roads, as also verified by its application on the urban area of Milan (Italy). Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Transportation in Sustainable Energy Systems)
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16 pages, 4689 KiB  
Article
Modelling Electric Vehicle Charge Demand: Implementation for the Greek Power System
by Stavros G. Mitrakoudis and Minas C. Alexiadis
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13(7), 115; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13070115 - 29 Jun 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3025
Abstract
The emerging popularity of Plug-in Electric Vehicles (PEVs) is creating new connections between the transportation and electric sectors, and PEV charging will bring new opportunities and challenges to a system of growing complexity. The electrification of transport will increase energy security, reduce carbon [...] Read more.
The emerging popularity of Plug-in Electric Vehicles (PEVs) is creating new connections between the transportation and electric sectors, and PEV charging will bring new opportunities and challenges to a system of growing complexity. The electrification of transport will increase energy security, reduce carbon emissions, and improve local air quality. The actual expansion of electric vehicles (EVs) will depend on several factors: the evolution of autonomy, the acquisition price, the charging process and infrastructure, etc. This paper provides a guide for simulating the accumulative load profile for EV charging on a national level. The importance of all the parameters and variables involved (deterministic or stochastic) is investigated. Detailed tables and references concerning the distribution of values and the composition of the EV fleet are provided. A multivariate probabilistic model is developed considering the EV classes, weekly and seasonal driving patterns, charging strategies, battery capacities, consumption per EV, etc., leading to an accurate estimation of aggregated EV charging demand. Finally, a net-metering scheme is proposed, in which a photovoltaic (PV) system of a certain size will be able to provide the annual energy needs of the first 10,000 EVs in the Greek market. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Distributed Generation and Storage in Power Systems)
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21 pages, 11465 KiB  
Article
An Energy-Based Assessment of Expected Benefits for V2H Charging Systems through a Dedicated Dynamic Simulation and Optimization Tool
by Carlo Villante, Stefano Ranieri, Francesco Duronio, Angelo De Vita and Michele Anatone
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13(6), 99; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13060099 - 6 Jun 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2624
Abstract
Electricity from renewable energy sources represents the most promising way to decarbonize energy systems. A grid connection of car Electricity Storage Systems (ESSs) represents an opportunity to tackle issues regarding electricity production non-programmability, only if sufficiently smart bi-directional Vehicle to Grid technologies (V2G) [...] Read more.
Electricity from renewable energy sources represents the most promising way to decarbonize energy systems. A grid connection of car Electricity Storage Systems (ESSs) represents an opportunity to tackle issues regarding electricity production non-programmability, only if sufficiently smart bi-directional Vehicle to Grid technologies (V2G) are widely implemented. Fully Bi-directional grid capabilities are still poor and must be increased, both physically and in terms of management and billing possibilities (in the so-called smart-grid paradigm). However, some V2G technologies may be already implemented in smaller individual contexts: so-called Vehicle to Home, V2H technologies. Starting from these considerations, within the frame of an Italian publicly funded research project, the authors categorized and described many possible application contexts and developed an open-source dynamic simulation (fully available under request for the scientific community) to identify most promising conditions. To this aim, they also synthetized and tested an effective energy optimization algorithm which will soon be implemented on a prototypal wireless V2H device, built by ENEA in cooperation with Cassino University, in Italy. The performances of the system were assessed evaluating electricity auto-consumption and home auto-feeding ratios. Simulations show that very relevant performances can be obtained, up to the values 69% for electricity auto-consumption and 82% of home auto-feeding. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in World Electric Vehicle Journal in 2022)
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18 pages, 20513 KiB  
Article
Electric Vehicle Public Charging Infrastructure Planning Using Real-World Charging Data
by Benedict J. Mortimer, Christopher Hecht, Rafael Goldbeck, Dirk Uwe Sauer and Rik W. De Doncker
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13(6), 94; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13060094 - 24 May 2022
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 7091
Abstract
The current increase of electric vehicles in Germany requires an adequately developed charging infrastructure. Large numbers of public and semi-public charging stations are necessary to ensure sufficient coverage. To make the installation worthwhile for the mostly private operators as well as public ones, [...] Read more.
The current increase of electric vehicles in Germany requires an adequately developed charging infrastructure. Large numbers of public and semi-public charging stations are necessary to ensure sufficient coverage. To make the installation worthwhile for the mostly private operators as well as public ones, a sufficient utilization is decisive. An essential factor for the degree of utilization is the placement of a charging station. Therefore, the initial site selection plays a critical role in the planning process. This paper proposes a charging station placement procedure based on real-world data on charging station utilization and places of common interest. In the first step, we correlate utilization rates of existing charging infrastructure with places of common interest such as restaurants, shops, bars and sports facilities. This allows us to estimate the untapped potential of unexploited areas across Germany in a second step. In the last step, we employ the resulting geographical extrapolation to derive two optimized expansion strategies based on the attractiveness of locations for electric vehicle charging. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Charging Infrastructure for EVs)
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15 pages, 3073 KiB  
Article
Novel Hybrid Thermal Management System for High-Power Lithium-Ion Module for Electric Vehicles: Fast Charging Applications
by Danial Karimi, Hamidreza Behi, Joeri Van Mierlo and Maitane Berecibar
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13(5), 86; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13050086 - 11 May 2022
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3087
Abstract
Lithium-ion capacitors (LiC) are hybrid energy storage systems (ESS) combining the advantages of lithium-ion batteries and electric double-layer capacitors, including longer lifetime, high power, and energy densities. LiCs are popular for high-power applications where fast charge and discharge driving profiles are demanded from [...] Read more.
Lithium-ion capacitors (LiC) are hybrid energy storage systems (ESS) combining the advantages of lithium-ion batteries and electric double-layer capacitors, including longer lifetime, high power, and energy densities. LiCs are popular for high-power applications where fast charge and discharge driving profiles are demanded from electric vehicles (EV). However, LiCs generate excess heat when they are exposed to fast charging/discharging profiles. Therefore, a robust thermal management system (TMS) is crucial, in order to ensure reliable operation. In this study, a novel hybrid TMS based on air-cooling system assisted phase change materials (PCM), heat pipes, and a heat sink is proposed for an LiC module under a 150 A continuous current profile. A very thin aluminum heat sink and flat copper heat pipes were added to the PCM to increase its thermal conductivity. An experimental test bench of the proposed TMS was developed, and the temperature distribution of the module for each of the individual LiC cells was studied. The maximum temperature of the module under natural convection, when there was not any cooling system, reached almost 59.8 °C. The experimental results showed that after using the proposed hybrid TMS, the hottest cell reached 36.18 °C while the coldest cell reached 35.54 °C. Therefore, 39.5% improvement could be seen during the whole charge and discharge process after 3000 s. Moreover, the temperature difference within the module, of four LiCs, was around 0.64 °C, which was exceptional. Full article
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21 pages, 5224 KiB  
Article
Life-Cycle CO2-Equivalent Emissions of Cars Driven by Conventional and Electric Propulsion Systems
by Mario Hirz and Thu Trang Nguyen
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13(4), 61; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13040061 - 31 Mar 2022
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 9048
Abstract
As an important trend in the automotive industry, electrification of propulsion systems has potential to significantly reduce greenhouse-gas emissions of the transportation sector. Whereas electric vehicles do not produce exhaust emissions during driving, the impact of electricity provision for charging batteries, as well [...] Read more.
As an important trend in the automotive industry, electrification of propulsion systems has potential to significantly reduce greenhouse-gas emissions of the transportation sector. Whereas electric vehicles do not produce exhaust emissions during driving, the impact of electricity provision for charging batteries, as well as the impact of vehicle production play an essential role in a holistic consideration of the carbon footprint. The paper introduces a comprehensive evaluation of greenhouse gas-emission-related factors of cars driven by different propulsion technologies, considering the entire product life cycle. This comprises vehicle production, including battery system, electric powertrain and other relevant components, the car’s use phase under consideration of different electricity mixes and the end-of-life phase. The results of the study give insights of influencing factors on life-cycle-related carbon-dioxide-equivalent emissions of cars driven by combustion engines, hybrid powertrains and battery-electric propulsion systems. In addition, a comparison of actual mass-production cars is made and the total life-cycle carbon footprints are discussed under different boundary conditions of electric power supply. In this way, the article comprehensively introduces an automotive life-cycle assessment and provides fundamental information, contributing to an objective discussion of different propulsion technologies. Full article
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22 pages, 2443 KiB  
Article
The Capacity of Battery-Electric and Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles to Mitigate CO2 Emissions: Macroeconomic Evidence from European Union Countries
by Matheus Koengkan, José Alberto Fuinhas, Mônica Teixeira, Emad Kazemzadeh, Anna Auza, Fatemeh Dehdar and Fariba Osmani
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13(4), 58; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13040058 - 24 Mar 2022
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 4766
Abstract
The decarbonisation of the transportation sector is crucial to reducing carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. This study analyses evidence from European countries regarding achievement of the European Commission’s goal of achieving carbon neutrality by 2050. Using panel quantile econometric techniques, the impact [...] Read more.
The decarbonisation of the transportation sector is crucial to reducing carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. This study analyses evidence from European countries regarding achievement of the European Commission’s goal of achieving carbon neutrality by 2050. Using panel quantile econometric techniques, the impact of battery-electric vehicles (BEVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) on CO2 emissions in twenty-nine European Union (EU) countries from 2010–2020 was researched. The results show that BEVs and PHEVs are capable of mitigating CO2 emissions. However, each type of technology has a different degree of impact, with BEVs being more suited to minimizing CO2 emissions than PHEVs. We also found a statistically significant impact of economic development (quantile regression results) and energy consumption in increasing the emissions of CO2 in the EU countries in model estimates for both BEVs and PHEVs. It should be noted that BEVs face challenges, such as the scarcity of minerals for the production of batteries and the increased demand for mineral batteries, which have significant environmental impacts. Therefore, policymakers should adopt environmentally efficient transport that uses clean energy, such as EVs, to reduce the harmful effects on public health and the environment caused by the indiscriminate use of fossil fuels. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Vehicle Electrification and the Environment)
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17 pages, 6584 KiB  
Article
Performance Comparison of High-Speed Motors for Electric Vehicle
by Kohei Aiso and Kan Akatsu
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13(4), 57; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13040057 - 23 Mar 2022
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 7245
Abstract
It is predicted that the maximum speed of EV traction motors will increase in the future due to reductions in size and weight. The high-speed motors are required to have high mechanical strength of the rotor for high-speed rotation, in addition to satisfying [...] Read more.
It is predicted that the maximum speed of EV traction motors will increase in the future due to reductions in size and weight. The high-speed motors are required to have high mechanical strength of the rotor for high-speed rotation, in addition to satisfying the required output and high efficiency in the wide operation area. Therefore, it is necessary to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of motors in terms of both electrical and mechanical points of view. In this research, three motor types, PMSM, SRM, and IM, which targeted the output power of 85 kW and the maximum speed of 52,000 min−1, are designed for use with EV traction motors, and the study clarifies which the type of motor is most suitable for application in high-speed motors of EVs in terms of their mechanical and electrical characteristics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Permanent Magnet Machines and Drive Systems for Electric Vehicles)
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34 pages, 12997 KiB  
Article
Comparison of Different Winding Configurations for Dual Three-Phase Interior PM Machines in Electric Vehicles
by Shensheng Wang, Ziqiang Zhu, Adam Pride, Juntao Shi, Rajesh Deodhar and Chiaki Umemura
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13(3), 51; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13030051 - 11 Mar 2022
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 6400
Abstract
In this paper, two dual three-phase winding configurations are compared based on the Toyota Prius 2010 interior permanent magnet (IPM) machine. It is found that the winding configuration with single-layer full-pitched (SF) windings can improve average torque and reduce torque ripple in constant [...] Read more.
In this paper, two dual three-phase winding configurations are compared based on the Toyota Prius 2010 interior permanent magnet (IPM) machine. It is found that the winding configuration with single-layer full-pitched (SF) windings can improve average torque and reduce torque ripple in constant torque range. The winding configuration with double-layer short-pitched (DS) windings has better torque performance in a constant power range. The electromagnetic performances of the two winding configurations when one winding set is excited and the other one is open-circuited are also compared. The DS winding configuration shows much better performance under this condition. Overall, the dual three-phase winding configuration with DS windings is preferred for dual three-phase IPM machines in electric vehicles. A Toyota Prius 2010 IPM machine equipped with DS windings was manufactured to verify the analyses presented in this paper. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Permanent Magnet Machines and Drive Systems for Electric Vehicles)
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27 pages, 13489 KiB  
Article
Understanding Complexity in Charging Infrastructure through the Lens of Social Supply–Demand Systems
by Jurjen Helmus, Mike Lees and Robert van den Hoed
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13(3), 44; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13030044 - 24 Feb 2022
Viewed by 3298
Abstract
Since the first release of modern electric vehicles, researchers and policy makers have shown interest in the deployment and utilization of charging infrastructure. Despite the sheer volume of literature, limited attention has been paid to the characteristics and variance of charging behavior of [...] Read more.
Since the first release of modern electric vehicles, researchers and policy makers have shown interest in the deployment and utilization of charging infrastructure. Despite the sheer volume of literature, limited attention has been paid to the characteristics and variance of charging behavior of EV users. In this research, we answer the question: which scientific approaches can help us to understand the dynamics of charging behavior in charging infrastructures, in order to provide recommendations regarding a more effective deployment and utilization of these infrastructures. To do so, we propose a conceptual model for charging infrastructure as a social supply–demand system and apply complex system properties. Using this conceptual model, we estimate the rate complexity, using three developed ratios that relate to the (1) necessity of sharing resources, (2) probabilities of queuing, and (3) cascading impact of transactions on others. Based on a qualitative assessment of these ratios, we propose that public charging infrastructure can be characterized as a complex system. Based on our findings, we provide four recommendations to policy makers for taking efforts to reduce complexity during deployment and measure interactions between EV users using systemic metrics. We further point researchers and policy makers to agent-based simulation models that capture interactions between EV users and the use complex network analysis to reveal weak spots in charging networks or compare the charging infrastructure layouts of across cities worldwide. Full article
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23 pages, 9661 KiB  
Article
Influence of Adhesive Tapes as Thermal Interface Materials on the Thermal Load of a Compact Electrical Machine
by Henrik-Christian Graichen, Jörg Sauerhering, Olena Stamann, Frank Beyrau and Gunar Boye
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13(2), 42; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13020042 - 19 Feb 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3382
Abstract
In this article, a novel form of thermal interface material (TIM), represented by three industrially manufactured pressure-sensitive adhesive (PSA) tapes with electrical insulating properties, is characterized regarding its applicability in an electric motor with air-gap winding. Firstly, the adhesion performances, in terms of [...] Read more.
In this article, a novel form of thermal interface material (TIM), represented by three industrially manufactured pressure-sensitive adhesive (PSA) tapes with electrical insulating properties, is characterized regarding its applicability in an electric motor with air-gap winding. Firstly, the adhesion performances, in terms of the winding process, were investigated experimentally. Here, every TIM shows sufficient shear strength for the wire–TIM joints, as well as peel adhesion to the laminated iron core. Secondly, the thermal–physical properties of the TIMs are inspected experimentally via laser flash analysis (LFA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). For every TIM, the value of the thermal resistance can double if the relatively smooth surface (Ra = 0.2 μm) of the adjacent layers is interchanged with a rougher one (Ra = 2.0–3.7 μm). Additionally, the TIM’s performance at the system level is examined. Therefore, a flat test section, according to the specifications of the original motor, is studied experimentally and numerically utilizing infrared (IR) thermography and the finite element method (FEM). The focus is set on the heat flow and temperature distribution in the test section under varying thermal loads, mass flow, and variety of TIMs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Permanent Magnet Machines and Drive Systems for Electric Vehicles)
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20 pages, 23357 KiB  
Article
High Gain Converter with Improved Radial Basis Function Network for Fuel Cell Integrated Electric Vehicles
by Balasubramanian Girirajan, Himanshu Shekhar, Wen-Cheng Lai, Hariraj Kumar Jagannathan and Parameshachari Bidare Divakarachar
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13(2), 31; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13020031 - 31 Jan 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2975
Abstract
In a recent trend, electric vehicles (EV) have been facing various power quality issues, so fuel cells (FC) are considered the best choice for integrating EV technology to enhance performance. A fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) is a type of EV that uses [...] Read more.
In a recent trend, electric vehicles (EV) have been facing various power quality issues, so fuel cells (FC) are considered the best choice for integrating EV technology to enhance performance. A fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) is a type of EV that uses a fuel cell combined with a small battery or super-capacitor to power its on-board electric motor. However, the power obtained from the FC system is much less and is not enough to drive the EV. So, another energy source is required to deliver the demanded power, which should contain high voltage gain with high conversion efficiency. The traditional converter produces a high output voltage at a high duty cycle, which generates various problems, such as reverse recovery issues, voltage spikes, and less lifespan. High switching frequency and voltage gain are essential for the propulsion of FC-based EV. Therefore, this paper presents an improved radial basis function (RBF)-based high-gain converter (HGC) to enhance the voltage gain and conversion efficiency of the entire system. The RBF neural model was constructed using the fast recursive algorithm (FRA) strategy to prune redundant hidden-layer neurons. The improved RBF technique reduces the input current ripple and voltage stress on the power semiconductor devices to increase the conversion ratio of the HGC without changing the duty cycle value. In the end, the improved RBF with HGC achieved an efficiency of 98.272%, vehicle speed of 91 km/h, and total harmonic distortion (THD) of 3.12%, which was simulated using MATLAB, and its waveforms for steady-state operation were analyzed and compared with existing methods. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Intelligence Applied to Edge Computing of Electric Vehicle Applications)
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20 pages, 3171 KiB  
Article
Optimization and Analysis of Electric Vehicle Operation with Fast-Charging Technologies
by Mohammed Al-Saadi, Manuel Mathes, Johannes Käsgen, Koffrie Robert, Matthias Mayrock, Joeri Van Mierlo and Maitane Berecibar
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13(1), 20; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13010020 - 13 Jan 2022
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 5596
Abstract
This work presents three demos, which include Electric Buses (EBs) from four various brands with lengths of 12 m and 18 m and an Electric Truck (E-truck) for refuse collection. The technical operation of these EVs were analyzed to implement further operational cost [...] Read more.
This work presents three demos, which include Electric Buses (EBs) from four various brands with lengths of 12 m and 18 m and an Electric Truck (E-truck) for refuse collection. The technical operation of these EVs were analyzed to implement further operational cost optimization on the demo vehicles. The Electric Vehicles (EVs) were tested against superfast-charging solutions based on Pantograph (Type A & Type B) on the route lines (and depots) and based on Combined Charging System Type 2 (CCS2, Combo2) from various brands to validate the interoperability among several vendors and support further EV integration with more affordable solutions. The optimization includes the calculation of the EBs’ consumption at various seasons and under various operating conditions in order to use optimum battery system design, heating system, optimum EB fleet operation and size and to find the charging solutions properly. The results showed that the EB consumption increases in some cases by 64.5% in wintertime due to heating systems, and the consumption in urban areas is more than that on the route lines outside cities. In the E-truck demo, where the electric heater was replaced with a heat-pump to optimize the energy consumption, it was found that the consumption of the heat-pump is about half of the electric heater under certain operating conditions. Under strict EB schedule, Pantograph charging solutions with power ratings of 300–600 kW have been adopted to charge the batteries of the EBs within 4–10 min. In order to minimize the cumulative costs of energy, (pantograph) charging infrastructure depreciation and battery degradation, as well as depot charging (at the bus operator’s depot), was adopted with a power level of 50–350 kW based on CCS2 and pantograph. Full article
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17 pages, 970 KiB  
Article
Research on the Influence Mechanism of Consumers’ Purchase Intention of Electric Vehicles Based on Perceived Endorsement: A Case Study of Chinese Electric Vehicle Start-Ups
by Yong Zang, Jue Qian and Qianling Jiang
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13(1), 19; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13010019 - 9 Jan 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 5922
Abstract
During the last decade, a number of electric vehicle start-ups have emerged in China. Although there have been quite a lot of studies on consumers’ purchase decision of electric vehicles, it is not common in the case of electric vehicle start-ups. This paper [...] Read more.
During the last decade, a number of electric vehicle start-ups have emerged in China. Although there have been quite a lot of studies on consumers’ purchase decision of electric vehicles, it is not common in the case of electric vehicle start-ups. This paper puts forward the concept of perceived endorsement and discusses the relationship among perceived benefit, perceived risk, range anxiety, attitude and consumers’ purchase intention and establishes a theoretical model of consumers’ purchase intention towards electric vehicles from start-ups. A structural equation model was used to test the research model and the hypotheses of the model. The results indicate that perceived endorsement has a significant positive influence on perceived benefit and attitude, which then affects consumers’ purchase intention, but range anxiety and perceived risk have no impact on purchase intention. Full article
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38 pages, 11928 KiB  
Review
Permanent Magnet Machines for High-Speed Applications
by Tianran He, Ziqiang Zhu, Fred Eastham, Yu Wang, Hong Bin, Di Wu, Liming Gong and Jintao Chen
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13(1), 18; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13010018 - 7 Jan 2022
Cited by 32 | Viewed by 12291
Abstract
This paper overviews high-speed permanent magnet (HSPM) machines, accounting for stator structures, winding configurations, rotor constructions, and parasitic effects. Firstly, single-phase and three-phase PM machines are introduced for high-speed applications. Secondly, for three-phase HSPM machines, applications, advantages, and disadvantages of slotted/slotless stator structures, [...] Read more.
This paper overviews high-speed permanent magnet (HSPM) machines, accounting for stator structures, winding configurations, rotor constructions, and parasitic effects. Firstly, single-phase and three-phase PM machines are introduced for high-speed applications. Secondly, for three-phase HSPM machines, applications, advantages, and disadvantages of slotted/slotless stator structures, non-overlapping/overlapping winding configurations, different rotor constructions, i.e., interior PM (IPM), surface-mounted PM (SPM), and solid PM, are summarised in detail. Thirdly, parasitic effects due to high-speed operation are presented, including various loss components, rotor dynamic and vibration, and thermal aspects. Overall, three-phase PM machines have no self-starting issues, and exhibit high power density, high efficiency, high critical speed, together with low vibration and noise, which make them a preferred choice for high-performance, high-speed applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Permanent Magnet Machines and Drive Systems for Electric Vehicles)
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12 pages, 4006 KiB  
Article
A Novel Sub-Harmonic Synchronous Machine Using Three-Layer Winding Topology
by S M Sajjad Hossain Rafin, Qasim Ali and Thomas A. Lipo
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13(1), 16; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13010016 - 4 Jan 2022
Cited by 20 | Viewed by 3707
Abstract
This paper proposes a novel brushless synchronous machine topology that utilizes stator sub-harmonic magnetomotive force (MMF) for desirable brushless operation. The sub-harmonic MMF component that is used in this novel topology is one fourth of the fundamental MMF component, whereas, in previous practices, [...] Read more.
This paper proposes a novel brushless synchronous machine topology that utilizes stator sub-harmonic magnetomotive force (MMF) for desirable brushless operation. The sub-harmonic MMF component that is used in this novel topology is one fourth of the fundamental MMF component, whereas, in previous practices, it was half. To achieve the brushless operation, the novel machine uses a unique stator winding configuration of two sets of balanced 3-phase winding wound in 3 layers. For the rotor, additional winding is placed to induce the sub-harmonic component to achieve the brushless excitation. Unlike its predecessors, it utilizes maximum allowable space in the stator to house conductors in all of its slots. To implement the topology, 8-pole, 48-slot sub-harmonic brushless synchronous machine model has been designed. A 2-D finite element analysis (FEA) is used to simulate and validate the performance of the novel machine as a motor. The proposed topology shows better average torque than the existing sub-harmonic wound rotor brushless synchronous machine topologies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design, Analysis and Optimization of Electrical Machines and Drives for Electric Vehicles)
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12 pages, 606 KiB  
Article
Quantifying the Impact of Traffic on Electric Vehicle Efficiency
by Tim Jonas, Christopher D. Hunter and Gretchen A. Macht
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13(1), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13010015 - 1 Jan 2022
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3921
Abstract
While the influence of several factors on battery electric vehicle (BEV) efficiency has been investigated in the past, their impact on traffic is not yet fully understood, especially when driving in a natural environment. This paper investigates the influence of driving in intense [...] Read more.
While the influence of several factors on battery electric vehicle (BEV) efficiency has been investigated in the past, their impact on traffic is not yet fully understood, especially when driving in a natural environment. This paper investigates the influence of driving in intense traffic conditions while considering the ambient temperature and driving behavior on BEV energy efficiency in a field study. A total of 30 BEV inexperienced drivers test drove a 2017 Volkswagen eGolf on a route with various road types in two different traffic intensity scenarios: During morning commute hours with higher traffic congestion and lower congestion hours throughout the middle of the day. Results support the hypothesis that traffic conditions significantly impact the vehicle’s efficiency, with additional consumption of approximately 4–5% in the high traffic scenario. By creating and comparing driving in traffic to an underlying base case scenario, the additional range potential by avoiding traffic for this particular vehicle can be quantified as up to seven miles. New patterns of BEV efficiencies emerged, which can help stakeholders understand how eco-driving can be strategically improved by selecting trip times and routes that avoid high traffic intensity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fuel Consumption and Emissions from Vehicles)
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