Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213480

Authors: María Cecilia Castro Alejandro Diaz Guillermo Schinella Flavio Francini

Background: Obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are growing public health problems that affect an increasing number of people worldwide because of their prevalence, costs, and health effects. Medicinal plants have preventive effects against chronic diseases, and the trend towards seeking natural products for their treatment and prevention is growing. Yerba mate (YM) is an herbal tea prepared from the dried and roasted leaves of a native South American tree, Ilex paraguariensis St. Hil. It is known for its high content of polyphenols, methylxanthines, and saponins. Methods: Searches were conducted in PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials; Google Scholar was used as a supplementary source for citation tracking and identification of potentially relevant records. For clinical trials, articles published between 2011 and 2026 were selected. Results: Several studies found improvements in serum parameters, weight gain and reduced inflammation and oxidative stress in animal models. In humans, few clinical trials have been performed. They suggest positive effects on human health, decreasing waist-to-hip ratio, BMI, and improving fasting glucose, HbA1c, lipid and antioxidant serum levels, and reducing the risk of developing coronary disease. Conclusions: This review integrates preclinical and clinical evidence on Ilex paraguariensis in obesity, T2DM, and CVD, with particular emphasis on the common roles of oxidative stress, inflammation, insulin resistance, and lipid dysregulation and the limitations that currently hinder clinical translation. Although YM represents a promising source of bioactive compounds and a potentially useful functional beverage, current human evidence remains insufficient to establish it as a routine treatment or preventive intervention for these cardiometabolic entities. Standardized preparations, adequately powered randomized trials, clinically relevant endpoints, and systematic long-term safety assessment are needed. By bringing these outcomes together, the review aims to distinguish mechanistic evidence from preliminary human findings and to identify priorities for standardized preparations and adequately powered clinical trials.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213478

Authors: Jue Zhao Shuo Zhang Si He Qinxu Song Nicheng Wu Hucheng Xing

Agronomic regulation is vital for improving the phytoextraction efficiency of economic crops in cadmium (Cd)-contaminated soils. Here, a two-season pot experiment evaluated the effects of foliar versus soil KH2PO4 applications on ramie (Boehmeria nivea L.) under Cd stress. Growth and phytoextraction performance peaked during the second harvest season. Foliar application of 0.2% KH2PO4 increased ramet number by 118.2% and alleviated oxidative damage by sequentially activating SOD, POD, and CAT. Subcellular analysis indicated that foliar KH2PO4 enhanced Cd sequestration within root cell walls, restricting excessive Cd translocation to photosynthetic tissues. In contrast, high-dose soil application exacerbated toxicity and inhibited biomass accumulation. Structural equation modeling showed that shoot biomass primarily drove total Cd extraction (β = 0.925), whereas stem cell wall Cd retention served as the major limiting factor (β = −0.471). Overall, low-dose foliar KH2PO4 provides a promising agronomic approach to enhance Cd phytoextraction by maximizing shoot biomass while limiting tissue toxicity.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213479

Authors: Marijenka Tabakovic Vojka Babic Vesna Peric Vesna Dragicevic Anika Kovincic Violeta Oro Rade Stanisavljevic Ivana Zivkovic Violeta Mickovski Stefanovic Natalija Kravic

During the transition from seed quiescence to active seedling development—where early metabolic repair and structural biomass deposition are tightly regulated by genotypic identity—hydropriming efficacy exhibits a pronounced temperature- and immersion duration-dependent trade-off. This study evaluates the capacity of hydropriming to regulate this morpho-physiological and metabolic pattern in investigated maize landraces by contrasting the unprimed baseline (T0) against treatments at 20 °C (T1–T3) and 30 °C (T4–T6) across 8-h, 16-h, and 24-h immersion periods. Under optimal eustress (during the 24-h immersion at 20 °C under T3), a high germination capacity of 94% expressed by genotype L3 relies upon active phytate phosphorus (Pphy) breakdown and robust glutathione buffering to increase chlorophyll b up to ~96%, whereas thermal strain (induced by 8-h to 24-h exposures under T4–T6) shifts metabolic priority downward into root-zone defences at the expense of chlorophyll accumulation (which declines up to ~88%). Under thermal strain, Pphy retention triggers a massive compensatory upregulation of redox status, expanding root glutathione synthesis up to ~282% and stimulating secondary phenylpropanoid pathways to drive root yellow pigment accumulation up to ~887%, significantly reinforcing integrated radical scavenging activity to mitigate oxidative damage. Principal component analysis resolves these responses into parallel, tissue-specific functional domains: optimal growth, thermal adjustment, metabolic latency, and suppressed vigour. Ultimately, the artificial neural network modelling establishes genetic identity as the predominant driver of overall system variance, verifying that the 24-h immersion at 20 °C triggers the physiological threshold required to maintain chlorophyll homeostasis for successful autotrophic establishment, providing a targeted pre-sowing protocol for routine maize germplasm regeneration.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213476

Authors: Shahzad Hussain Shah Kristi Spieleder Ryan Koeth Changbin Chen

Silicon deposition in grasses produces silica bodies with characteristic morphologies and distributions, but our understanding of their organ-specific diversity and developmental silicification remains limited beyond extensively studied crop species. Here, we investigated silica body formation in Zingeria biebersteiniana, a diploid grass with 2n = 4 chromosomes, by combining organ-level morphological characterization with a post-transplant developmental analysis. Dry-ash preparations were examined by fluorescence microscopy and quantified using digital image analysis. Mature soil-grown plants exhibited organ-associated silica body morphotypes in leaf blades, leaf sheaths, stems, glumes, lemmas, and paleae, with marked differences in morphology, distribution, and epidermal coverage. Plants maintained in vitro on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium without intentionally added Si showed little to no detectable leaf silicification. Following transfer to soil, silica bodies were readily detectable by Day 7 in both Leaf 3, which was fully expanded at transplantation, and the younger, developing Leaf 2. Descriptive analysis showed broad silica-body area distributions that shifted during the post-transplant period. Spatial imaging further revealed interplant heterogeneity: three plants showed more distal and marginal silicification, whereas nine showed relatively uniform blade-wide patterns. These results provide an anatomical and developmental framework for investigating silicon biology in Z. biebersteiniana and demonstrate the utility and limitations of fluorescence-based dry-ash imaging for descriptive analysis of silicification in grasses.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213477

Authors: Yinli Shan Nan Zheng Yupeng He Enguang Nie Haiyan Wang

Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) are emerging aquatic contaminants. Existing studies investigating the uptake of PPCPs by aquatic plants under hydroponic conditions have mostly been performed in non-competitive systems. Few reports are available regarding plant uptake and translocation of PPCPs under multi-species coexistence and interspecific competition. In this study, competitive hydroponic experiments were conducted in a greenhouse using 14C-triclosan to explore the uptake and distribution of triclosan in six hydrophytes: water spinach, purple perilla, cress, penny grass, cane shoot, and rice. The results showed that the triclosan uptake capacity of aquatic plants in the competitive hydroponic system followed the order: cress > water spinach > cane shoot > rice > penny grass > purple perilla. The root 14C-triclosan concentrations in water spinach (222.15–564.54 μg g−1) and cress (198.66–569.25 μg g−1) were significantly higher than those of the other species. Triclosan mainly accumulated in roots (90.36–99.04% of total plant uptake), with shoot levels 2–3 orders of magnitude below roots. Compared with non-competitive hydroponic conditions, interspecific competition exerted no significant effects on the uptake, distribution and translocation of triclosan in plants. This work advances the understanding of triclosan accumulation-translocation in hydrophytes under competitive conditions and supports risk assessment for triclosan.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213475

Authors: Jianzhong Sang Xiaofang Ding Jiquan Zhang Bingyan Liu Xiaoming Lu Zhuanhong Liang Tingting Fan Lijun Liu Yuanyuan Pu Junyan Wu Li Ma Wangtian Wang Gang Yang Wancang Sun

Winter turnip rape (Brassica rapa L.) is an important winter oilseed crop in the arid and cold regions of northern China due to its strong cold tolerance and wide adaptability. However, its prevalent self-incompatibility readily causes inbreeding depression, leading to declines in yield and quality and creating difficulties for cultivar breeding and pure-line propagation. To clarify how self-compatibility affects growth, yield, quality, and physiological traits, highly self-compatible (HSC), self-compatible (SC), and self-incompatible (SI) lines were compared under self-pollination and open pollination, and leaf antioxidant enzyme activities and endogenous hormone contents were measured. The results showed that the effects of selfing on seedling vegetative growth, agronomic traits, quality, and biomass were far smaller in HSC and SC lines than in SI lines, with inbreeding depression markedly alleviated. The mean inbreeding depression rates (IDRs) of major traits in HSC, SC, and SI lines were 4.32%, 8.14%, and 20.05%, respectively, the IDRs of effective silique number per plant were 3.03%, 5.22%, and 20.53%, and those of seed yield were 4.69%, 9.39%, and 27.90%. Line-level ANOVA and Tukey tests (three lines per group) confirmed that the IDRs of SI lines were significantly higher than those of HSC lines for all six core traits, with SC lines intermediate. Physiological and biochemical analyses indicated that HSC lines maintained higher SOD activity, and the contents of growth-promoting hormones, such as gibberellin (GA), cytokinin (CTK), and auxin (IAA), were generally higher than in SI lines, whereas CAT activity did not show a consistent advantage: in HSC lines CAT did not differ significantly between SP and OP (the two shared a significance group), and under open pollination SI-OP was grouped with HSC-OP and SC-OP. In contrast, after selfing, SI lines accumulated more abscisic acid (ABA), whereas the ethylene (ETH) differences were not consistently significant and the coordination of their antioxidant enzymes was altered rather than disrupted. Correlation analysis showed that the contents of growth-promoting hormones (GA, CTK, IAA, and BR) were significantly or highly significantly positively correlated with yield traits, such as seed yield per plant, effective silique number per plant, and thousand-seed weight, whereas ABA and ETH contents were highly significantly negatively correlated. A structural equation model, based on composite scores of hormones, enzymes, growth, and yield and quality, indicated that the hormone composite was strongly associated with the growth composite (standardized path coefficients of hormone → growth and growth → yield and quality were 0.816 and 0.535, respectively), whereas the enzyme composite was directly associated with yield and quality (0.291). These paths reflect statistical associations among the composite scores rather than confirming the specific underlying mechanisms, and vegetative growth was the main mediator linking the hormone composite to yield and quality. To our knowledge, self-compatibility in winter turnip rape can maintain relatively stable plant growth and development as well as yield and quality by alleviating inbreeding depression and maintaining physiological metabolism and hormone homeostasis. This study provides a theoretical basis for the screening and utilization of self-compatible germplasm and for high-yield breeding of winter turnip rape; because stress tolerance was not directly measured, any extrapolation to stress-resistant breeding requires dedicated stress-tolerance experiments in future work.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213474

Authors: Guanglong Zhu Chenghao Hu Qingqing Geng Qiwei Yang Sizhuo Chen Yuewen Ding Hussam Ahmad Tiankang Zhu Wen Sun Irshad Ahmad Guisheng Zhou

Arable land is diminishing rapidly as a result of environmental degradation and urbanization. The development and utilization of saline–alkali soils therefore represent an important strategy for ensuring global food security. Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is a staple food for over half of the global population, yet its productivity is severely constrained by saline–alkali stress. Salinity (mainly NaCl) and alkalinity (high pH caused by Na2CO3/NaHCO3) markedly impair both yield formation and grain quality. This review establishes diagnostic thresholds for salinity (ECe) and alkalinity (pH) to mitigate their adverse effects. The effects of saline–alkali stress on rice germination, seedling establishment, plant growth, reproductive development, and grain filling are summarized. And the underlying physiological and molecular mechanisms are elucidated, including ion homeostasis (mediated by OsHKT1;5, OsSOS1, and OsNHX1), osmotic adjustment, as well as alkalinity-specific processes such as rhizosphere acidification, organic acid exudation, and Fe/Zn acquisition under high pH, endogenous hormone crosstalk, antioxidant defense, starch/protein biosynthesis, and related key genes and quantitative trait loci (QTLs). Furthermore, recent advances of stress-resistant cultivation and regulation strategies are highlighted. On this basis, future research directions are prospected. This review provides a comprehensive understanding of the physiological and molecular mechanisms underlying rice saline–alkali tolerance, with important implications for achieving high yield and quality in rice production on saline–alkali soil.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213473

Authors: Md Minarul Islam Yunseon Hwang Yongsoo Choi Ki Sung Kang

The rhizosphere microbiome plays a crucial role in the development, health, and therapeutic properties of Panax ginseng. Therefore, we evaluated the spatial trends in bacterial communities using a comprehensive reanalysis of 359 sequenced rhizosphere samples from seven NCBI Sequence Read Archive BioProjects. The SILVA reference database was used to compare the Chinese and Korean sequencing datasets, focusing on quality filtering, denoising, amplicon sequence variants, and taxonomy assignment. The bacterial community structure was characterized, and differentially abundant taxa were identified using the Kruskal–Wallis test with false discovery rate correction. In addition, based on the detected bacterial taxa, potential ecological traits were contextually interpreted to provide insight into their potential ecological significance. Despite regional and technical variations, 37 bacterial taxa consistently emerged as conserved core microbiome members. Regional analyses revealed distinct bacterial drivers, such as Ligilactobacillus, Romboutsia, Nitrospira, and Bradyrhizobium in the Korean samples and Holophaga and Arachidicoccus in the Chinese samples. Putative functional annotations showed that plant-associated defense mechanisms, nutrient mobilization, and carbon cycling varied geographically. Overall, these findings indicate that although a conserved core community exists, regional differences may influence the composition, functional potential, and ecological relationships of the P. ginseng rhizosphere.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213472

Authors: Min-Kyu Park Jong-Du Lee Gun-Myung Lee Yeong-Jun Park Xiaofei Dang Yuxin He Hyuk-Joon Kwon Jae-Ho Shin

Wild-simulated and forest-grown Panax ginseng commands substantially higher prices than field-cultivated ginseng, largely on the assumption of a superior ginsenoside profile. Following PRISMA-ScR, we searched PubMed and Crossref (14 August 2026) and hand-searched Korean-language journals; 270 of 300 records were retained, and 4199 ginsenoside values were extracted from 44 studies, with the study as the unit of synthesis. Of 18 within-study contrasts in P. ginseng, eight reported higher major-ginsenoside abundances in forest material, but 13 of the 18 contrasts were not age-matched. The five age-matched comparisons were mixed: higher relative abundance of 19 constituents in one untargeted study, higher Re only in another, higher totals but lower Rg1 and Rf in a third, and rare-ginsenoside differences in two, with major ginsenosides either not consistently different or not reported. Truly wild ginseng is represented by fewer than ten quantified roots. Three conclusions follow: (i) forest-grown roots are chemically distinguishable, but consistent enrichment of major ginsenosides has not been shown once age is considered; (ii) largely uncontrolled age, site, plant part, and germplasm produce variation comparable to the reported system differences; and (iii) age-matched, germplasm-controlled studies with harmonized reporting are needed before profile-based quality claims are justified.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213471

Authors: Alessandro Borrelli Farzaneh Zamani Marco Esposito Roberta Paradiso

According to the list of Traditional Agri-food Products (TAPs) of the Italian Ministry of Agriculture, Food Sovereignty and Forestry, 1636 plant-based TAPs are currently registered in Italy. This study aimed at identifying strengths and constraints associated with the production, commercialization, and conservation status of plant-based TAPs selected in Campania. Data on all 246 TAPs recorded in the region were collected and analysed to assess their distribution in the 5 provinces. The conservation status was assessed by cross-referencing the TAPs list with the Regional Register of Plant Genetic Resources at Risk of Extinction and the National Register of Conservation Varieties. The study was conducted on a sample of 13 products, selected by edible organ (leaf, fruit, inflorescence, seed, and tuber/rhizome). Questionnaires concerning production and commercialization were distributed to two farmers per product. Most farms showed limited surfaces (<1 ha in 69.2%), with low yearly production levels (<10 q in 27% and 10–50 q in 38%). Cultivation mainly consists of organic farming (58%), reflecting the widespread adoption of low-input and environmentally sustainable practices, but entails higher production costs and operational constraints, affecting farm economic sustainability and competitiveness in broader markets. All farms distribute products at the local level, while 15% and 23% also reach national and European markets, respectively. Our results highlight the potential role of TAPs in supporting the sustainable utilisation of local plant genetic resources, territorial identity and rural food tourism. Strengthening the economic viability of plant-based TAPs may contribute to reducing the risk of genetic erosion and preserving Campania’s plant biodiversity and cultural heritage.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213470

Authors: Chang’An Zhou Chenxiao Wang Xiumin Guan Shanxing Zhao Jiarui Yang Laichen Zheng Jing Zhang Xiaoying Ning Keyan Peng Jiutao Yang Yuan Yao Lanping Luo Xin Liu

Photosynthetic source strength is a major determinant of soybean yield formation through its regulation of reproductive sink development. However, high-throughput quantification of sink traits under contrasting photosynthetic source conditions remains a major bottleneck for field-based source–sink physiology research. In this study, three soybean cultivars were subjected to graded artificial defoliation (0%, 25%, and 50%) at the R2 flowering stage to establish different levels of defoliation-induced source limitation. Biological observations showed that mature pod number consistently declined with increasing defoliation intensity across all cultivars, supporting the critical role of flowering-stage source limitation in determining sink formation. To enable efficient quantification of these sink responses, Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV)videos acquired at maturity were used to construct a field soybean pod dataset, and an integrated detection–tracking framework, PodCountNet, was developed by combining an improved SPDM-YOLO detector with the OC-SORT tracking algorithm. The proposed SPDM-YOLO achieved a precision of 88.2% and an mAP@0.5 of 94.5% under diverse canopy conditions. Although single-view counting accuracy varied with canopy architecture and illumination, dual-view fusion effectively reduced systematic errors and, achieving MAE = 66.3 pods and RMSE = 88.0 pods at the individual plot level (n = 27), substantially outperforming single-view front-lit (MAE = 114.2) and back-lit counting (MAE = 172.9). The proposed framework enables accurate, non-destructive, and high-throughput quantification of soybean sink responses under contrasting photosynthetic source conditions, providing an effective phenotyping tool for investigating source–sink coordination and supporting photosynthesis-oriented soybean breeding.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213469

Authors: Wei Chu Hezhi Lin Jianjuan Li Miao Jia Shenghang Wang Mingzhe Li Sansan Liu Zeyan Wu Wenxiong Lin

Plant growth-promoting bacteria can influence host metabolism, but live-inoculation systems confound chemical signaling with colonization, nutrient exchange, and continuous metabolite release. Here, Paenibacillus cellulositrophicus LB46 was co-cultured with sterile Casuarina equisetifolia seedlings for 5 d. After 0.22 μm filtration, the interaction-conditioned filtrate was applied to new sterile seedlings; no culturable LB46 was detected in the filtrate under the plating conditions used. Untargeted LC–QTOF-MS profiled roots after 3 and 5 d and shoots after 5 d. The filtrate induced broad metabolic remodeling, with stronger responses in roots than in shoots. A total of 473, 437, and 125 metabolites met the differential-abundance criterion (BH-FDR < 0.05) in 3 d roots, 5 d roots, and 5 d shoots, respectively; 273 root metabolites showed a significant treatment × time interaction (BH-FDR < 0.05). Temporal classification revealed pronounced turnover among early-transient, late-induced, and sustained responses. At 5 d, only 11 metabolites met the differential-abundance criterion in both roots and shoots, indicating predominantly tissue-differentiated remodeling. These results define temporally and spatially differentiated metabolic responses to the interaction-conditioned environment. Because bulk physicochemical properties of the filtrates were not characterized, the observed responses cannot be attributed exclusively to specific chemical signals.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213466

Authors: Tian Gao Lei He Yuan Wang Shaofeng Su

Astragaloside IV is the best-characterized cycloartane-type triterpenoid saponin and the pharmacopoeial quality marker of Astragali Radix, with documented cardioprotective, antitumor, and immunomodulatory effects. Supply is constrained by long cultivation cycles that vary with production practice, replant disease, and phytochemical variability. Six representative genome assemblies are summarized for the genus, and they show that triterpenoid tailoring genes are partly, but not universally, clustered: a ~4 Mb biosynthetic gene cluster houses the oxidative and glycosylating enzymes, whereas the backbone synthase gene AmOSC3 lies outside it. The core route from 2,3-oxidosqualene to astragaloside IV has been reconstituted enzyme by enzyme; the in planta downstream routing, the acetylation steps forming astragalosides I and II, and the regulation, compartmentalization, transport, and storage of these saponins remain unresolved. Heterologous production is at the proof-of-concept stage: 1.04 mg/L cycloastragenol in yeast (versus the 25 g/L artemisinic acid precedent), 2.224 mg astragaloside IV/g dry weight in Nicotiana benthamiana, and a 4.2-fold total-astragaloside increase in AmUGT15-overexpressing hairy roots. This review consolidates genome mining, pathway biochemistry, and synthetic-biology engineering; benchmarks current platforms against pharmacopoeial quality requirements; and maps the bottlenecks between proof of concept and sustainable biomanufacturing.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213468

Authors: Luis Francisco Fernández-Pozo María Angeles Rodríguez-González

Understanding how management and seasonality are associated with the soil microbiome is relevant for the sustainability of Mediterranean viticulture. This observational study compared the rhizosphere microbiome of rainfed and irrigated ‘Pardina’ vineyards on Calcaric Cambisols (Tierra de Barros, Extremadura, Spain) in five sampling campaigns (spring 2024–spring 2026) using 16S rRNA gene and ITS1 amplicon metabarcoding. The 30 soil samples were aggregated into ten community profiles per marker (five campaigns × two management), so inference is exploratory and limited by the absence of plot-level replication. Fungal communities in irrigated vineyards showed lower observed genus richness (median 180 vs. 297), Shannon diversity (3.05 vs. 3.84) and evenness than rainfed ones, with the same direction in all five campaigns, and a tendency toward higher dominance of a few genera (Berger–Parker 19.3% vs. 11.9%; not significant after correction), whereas prokaryotic richness and Shannon diversity did not differ consistently. Bray–Curtis PERMANOVA indicated a modest association between management and prokaryotic composition (R2 = 0.237, p = 0.048), which was not robust to permutations restricted within campaigns, and no detectable association for fungi (R2 = 0.151, p = 0.269); both results were sensitive to the inclusion of the spring 2026 campaign. The season and its interaction with management were not significant. Soil pH, available phosphorus and organic carbon differed between managements and planting density differed by design, so the patterns cannot be attributed to irrigation itself. The bacteria-to-fungi ratio, a sequencing-derived index, is reported descriptively only. These results identify candidate taxa and hypotheses to be tested in replicated experiments that include soil moisture and functional measurements.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213465

Authors: Jing Guo Jingyi Xu Yin Zhu Qiang Cai

Cistanche deserticola is a holoparasitic medicinal plant that has lost the ability to photosynthesize and grows entirely underground, so its reduced genome might suggest weak tissue-level metabolic partitioning. Using untargeted metabolomics of 132 samples from 22 plants, with each stem divided by tissue type (outer fraction vs. internal tissues) and longitudinal position (upper, middle, lower), we found a clear two-axis organization. Tissue type accounted for the smallest proportion of variance (15.2%) yet yielded the clearest discrimination: phenylethanoid glycosides (PhGs) and flavonoids were enriched in the outer fraction, whereas iridoids and primary metabolites predominated in internal tissues; along the stem, the upper part was an active metabolic zone and the lower part a sugar sink. The decline in PhG abundance with plant size occurred predominantly within tissues, with anatomical dilution contributing only 18.6%. Pathway-resolved mapping showed that the downstream steps of PhG assembly (acylation, rhamnosylation, hydroxylation, glucosylation) are progressively enriched in the outer fraction, so the discarded outer fraction is consistent with a possible site of biosynthesis, rather than merely a storage site, for acteoside and echinacoside. This stable organization likely reflects developmental canalization, indicating that gene loss does not eliminate tissue-level metabolic specialization.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213467

Authors: Qi Xu Changkun Ma Quanjiu Wang Qiuping Fu

How nitrogen (N) supply should be matched to increased planting density in drip-fertigated maize in arid regions remains unclear. A two-year split-plot field experiment (2024–2025) at Shihezi, northern Xinjiang, China, tested two planting densities (D1, 60,000; D2, 90,000 plants ha−1) and two N rates (N1, 180; N2, 240 kg N ha−1) in film-mulched, drip-irrigated spring maize. D2 increased grain yield by 13.9% over D1, because a 46.8% increase in ear number outweighed decreases in kernels per ear and kernel weight. The yield response to N depended on density (D × N, p < 0.01): N2 increased yield by 13.8% under D2 but by only 3.6% (not significant) under D1. N2 increased N accumulation at silking similarly at both densities, whereas its post-silking effects were much larger under D2, where it reduced the post-silking decline in leaf area index from 67.3% to 51.2% and increased post-silking dry matter accumulation and apparent N uptake by 22.0% and 44.3%. D2N2 produced the highest yield (11.51 t ha−1), whereas D2N1 achieved the highest partial factor productivity of N (56.2 kg kg−1). At this single site, dense planting benefited more from the higher N rate, most evidently after silking; validation across sites, hybrids, and N rates is needed.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213464

Authors: Zilin Wu Xueting Li Rui Liu Qiaoying Zeng Fangyin Pan Nannan Zhang Jiayun Wu Qinnan Wang

Sugarcane is an essential global industrial cash crop for sugar and bioenergy production, and breeding superior varieties is critical to improving industrial benefits and adapting to changing climatic environments. This review synthesizes the published breeding history, agronomic trial records, juice-quality evaluations, and transcriptomic analyses of the elite sugarcane variety YT93-159, and uses this variety as a model case to discuss the achievements and challenges of sugarcane breeding in South China. YT93-159 was bred through artificial hybridization using YN73-204 as the female parent and CP72-1210 as the male parent. Data compiled from variety-registration archives, peer-reviewed studies, and the authors’ previously published transcriptomic analyses indicate that YT93-159 integrates excellent parental advantages, with prominent early sugar accumulation, high yield, stable stress resistance, and wide adaptability. On the basis of differentially expressed genes identified in published transcriptomic datasets, its superior comprehensive traits may be co-regulated by candidate pathways including carbon fixation, sucrose metabolism, and plant hormone signal transduction; however, several pathway members showed the opposite expression changes, and these mechanisms should be regarded as hypotheses requiring further functional validation. This variety has achieved large-scale popularization in China and possesses excellent functional nutritional values. By clarifying the phenotypic and proposed molecular basis of YT93-159′s superior traits, this review provides a valuable germplasm resource profile and theoretical reference for sugarcane genetic improvement and sustainable industrial development.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213463

Authors: Zhihuan Ge Mengyi Yu Yinge Xie Haoran Wang Shaojun Ma Yijian Liu Shanshan Zhou Xueliang Sun Feifei Yu Mingxia Wang

The purple leaves of Brassica juncea are abundant in anthocyanins that confer stress tolerance, nutritional benefits, and ornamental value. In this study, we constructed F2 and BC1 segregating populations by crossing the purple leaf inbred line (ZY) with the green leaf inbred line (LY) to investigate the genetic basis of leaf pigmentation. Bulked segregant analysis sequencing (BSA-Seq) and map-based cloning localized the BjZY locus to a 162.08 kb interval on chromosome BB_Chr05. Based on sequence alignment and homology analysis, an R2R3 MYB transcription factor, BjMYB113 (BjuVB05G51160), was identified as a strong candidate gene, with 3 SNPs and 25 bp insert variants in the promoter region. The expression of BjMYB113 in purple leaves was significantly higher than that in green leaves, leading to anthocyanin biosynthesis and accumulation. The transient expression of BjMYB113 in tobacco leaf confirmed that BjMYB113 positively regulates anthocyanin biosynthesis. RNA-seq analysis revealed that BjMYB113 was involved in flavonoid and anthocyanin biosynthesis pathways and regulated the expression of anthocyanin-related genes, such as BjCHS, BjDFR, and BjANS. Yeast one-hybrid assays showed that BjMYB113 activated the expression of BjDFR by directly binding to its promoter. These results provide further understanding of the genetics of purple leaf and potential applications for marker-assisted breeding in B. juncea.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213462

Authors: Stefanos K. Soultatos Maria Megariti Nikolaos E. Krasagakis George Papadakis Stella Chatziioannidou Despoina Kourougkiaouri Electra Gizeli Emmanouil A. Markakis

In the present study, a novel method was developed and validated for the early, rapid and on-site detection of Botrytis cinerea in crude tomato samples using a loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay adapted for the portable device PEBBLE. Previously reported LAMP primers (targeting the IGS region of rDNA gene) were utilized and optimized in terms of concentration for this workflow, and the sensitivity, specificity and accuracy of the developed method were determined (97.96%, 100% and 98.70%, respectively). The LAMP assay, combined with the portable device, enabled real-time quantitative colorimetric (qcLAMP) detection of B. cinerea in less than 30 min. The limit of detection (LoD) of the qcLAMP assay was 1 pg genomic DNA (≈20 genome copies) per reaction, whereas conventional PCR (utilized as the gold standard method) detected no less than 100 pg of genomic DNA per reaction. In terms of B. cinerea infective propagules, qcLAMP could detect as few as 102 spores in both pure and crude DNA samples extracted from artificially inoculated tomato leaves, whereas PCR detected no fewer than 104 spores in pure DNA samples, failing to achieve detection in crude extracts. In in vivo bioassays, qcLAMP successfully detected B. cinerea immediately following spore deposition on leaf tissues (0 h post-inoculation) in both pure and crude DNA extracts. In contrast, conventional PCR was successful only in pure DNA samples from leaves collected 2 days post-inoculation (dpi) and in crude extracts at 3 dpi, when symptoms were already evident. Evaluations of in-field samples demonstrated that qcLAMP detected B. cinerea in 100% of crude extracts from symptomatic tissues and in 45% of asymptomatic (latently infected) samples. Conversely, conventional PCR failed to detect the pathogen in crude extracts, regardless of the disease status (symptomatic or asymptomatic). The developed method can serve as a rapid, reliable, and user-friendly tool for the early detection of B. cinerea in the field, enabling prompt assessment of inoculum pressure, thereby facilitating timely management interventions.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213460

Authors: Raffaella Brigante Laura Marconi Luca Regni

Accurate, non-destructive quantification of shoot development in plant micropropagation is essential for optimising culture protocols and improving throughput. This study evaluated the performance of four RGB vegetation indices, Excess Green (ExG), Green Leaf Index (GLI), Modified Green Red Vegetation Index (MGRVI), and Visible Atmospherically Resistant Index (VARI), for the automated segmentation of Rubus spp. shoots in close-range orthophotos acquired with a smartphone camera. Twelve vessels, each containing fifteen blackberry shoots, grown at four sucrose concentrations (0, 7.5, 15 and 30 g L−1) were analysed at both pixel and ROI (Region Of Interest) levels. Classification thresholds were determined by maximising the Youden index on the ROC curve, both as a single global threshold and as concentration-specific thresholds. GLI and ExG substantially outperformed MGRVI and VARI in all discriminability metrics (AUC-ROC = 0.991 and 0.988, respectively), with stable classification performance across all sucrose concentrations. Projected shoot cluster area estimates derived from the two best-performing indices were benchmarked against a geometrically explicit reference obtained from a colour-filtered 3D point cloud reconstructed by Structure-from-Motion (SfM) photogrammetry from the same image set. Strong agreement was observed between RGB-based and point-cloud-derived area estimates (R2=0.990 for GLI), with Intersection over Union (IoU) ≥0.84 for all vessels. Concentration-specific thresholds provided a modest improvement in in-sample regression fit over the single global threshold without substantially affecting geometric agreement. A separate external dataset of six vessels, with independently annotated masks, was subsequently used to assess threshold transferability (mean IoU 0.908 for GLI and 0.861 for ExG). The results indicate that, under the tested conditions, GLI and ExG applied to smartphone-acquired orthophotos provide a relatively low-cost, non-destructive approach for projected shoot cluster area extraction in Rubus spp. in vitro cultures. The study is primarily methodological: the relationship between the image-derived measurements and independent biological descriptors of shoot development or propagation performance was not assessed.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213461

Authors: Zhiying Li Yin Min Htwe Dapeng Zhang Peng Shi Qun Yu Xiangman He Yong Wang

Coconut zygotic embryo germination supports seedling establishment through coordinated embryo growth, tissue differentiation, and nutrient acquisition. A distinctive feature is the cotyledonary haustorium, which develops within the endosperm and transfers stored reserves to the growing seedling. However, transcriptional changes linking early germination to haustorium maturation and their relationships with phytohormone dynamics remain poorly understood. Here, we show that integrated time-resolved RNA sequencing, transcription factor (TF) and co-expression analyses, functional enrichment, and phytohormone profiling across 1–8 weeks after germination (WAG), including shoot/root (SR) and haustorium (Ha) tissues, reveal distinct developmental programs. We identified 792 core differentially expressed genes (DEGs), which formed four expression clusters. Cluster 4 was associated with early embryo development and included transcription factor (TF) modules involving VP1, ABI4, ARF1, BBM2, TCP4, ERF003, GRF2, and GRF6. In contrast, Cluster 1 increased during haustorium development and was enriched in hormone signaling, flavonoid biosynthesis, and cutin, suberine, and wax biosynthesis. MIF1, HOX16, and CPC showed high co-expression network connectivity. Hormone profiling showed relatively high auxin- and cytokinin-related metabolites early, progressive abscisic acid (ABA) increases, elevated ABA, indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), jasmonic acid (JA), jasmonoyl-isoleucine (JA-Ile), and salicylic acid (SA) in 6WAG-Ha, and increased methyl jasmonate (MeJA) and salicylic acid glucoside (SAG) in 8WAG-Ha. These findings reveal transcription factors and phytohormones during zygotic embryo germination, providing new understanding and reference to genetic transformation and somatic embryogenesis in coconut and other palm crops.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213459

Authors: Libing Gao Jianghao Wang Xinzhi Zhang Xiayang Wu Jianning Chang Bing Wang Shaoqing Guo

Biochar performance in alkaline, low-fertility soil depends on feedstock, pyrolysis temperature, and application rate, yet the effects of mining-affected Artemisia biomass remain poorly characterized. Artemisia (SBC) and maize straw (BC) biochars produced at 400, 500, and 600 °C were applied at 1% or 5% (w/w) in a 40-day ryegrass pot experiment. We measured plant growth, chlorophyll, antioxidant enzyme activities, plant tissue Fe, Mn, Cu, and Zn, and soil pH, organic carbon, enzyme activities, and diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA)-extractable micronutrients. At 1%, SBC600 increased plant height and root length by 60.98% and 43.10%, respectively, versus the unamended control; SBC500 increased total chlorophyll by 145.71%. Under L-SBC500, DTPA-extractable Fe, Mn, Cu, and Zn were 100.26%, 80.37%, 153.01%, and 342.86% higher than in the control. The 5% rate raised soil pH to 9.53 and attenuated several plant and soil responses. Converting this locally available mining-area weed into biochar provides a waste-to-resource strategy that simultaneously manages metal-bearing biomass and reshapes the soil micronutrient profile: the Artemisia biochar was intrinsically richer in Fe, Mn, and Cu but lower in Zn than the conventional maize straw biochar, revealing a feedstock-specific nutrient signature. These short-term, concentration-based results demonstrate clear treatment-dependent benefits, although they do not yet quantify the source or transfer of elements or establish long-term environmental safety.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213458

Authors: Sajida Hamdy Kashtoh Tensangmu Lama Tamang Kwang-Hyun Baek

Various abiotic challenges, including severe drought, extreme temperatures, salinity, and heavy metal toxicity, substantially limit plant growth and agricultural sustainability on a global scale. Sustainable approaches that strengthen crop resilience while minimizing environmental impacts are therefore urgently needed. Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), beneficial fungi, and nanoparticles have individually demonstrated considerable potential in improving plant growth, nutrient acquisition, antioxidant defense, and stress tolerance. PGPR enhance plant performance through phytohormone production, nutrient solubilization, 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminase activity, and activation of systemic defense responses. Beneficial fungi augment water uptake, nutrient absorption, osmotic adjustment, and stress-responsive signaling pathways, whereas nanoparticles facilitate efficient nutrient delivery, enhance photosynthetic performance, and support plant adaptation under adverse environmental conditions. Recent studies have further highlighted the synergistic benefits of PGPR–fungi, fungi–nanoparticle, and PGPR–nanoparticle interactions in mitigating abiotic stress. However, integrated tripartite interactions among PGPR, beneficial fungi, and nanoparticles remain insufficiently explored. This review summarizes current knowledge regarding their individual and combined roles, discusses the underlying physiological and molecular mechanisms, identifies existing research gaps, and proposes future perspectives for developing climate-resilient sustainable agricultural systems.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213454

Authors: Titi Thongkamngam Sukritta Anutrakunchai Bancha Wiangsamut

Damping-off disease threatens durian seedling production and can facilitate pathogen dissemination during transplanting. This study evaluated the biocontrol potential of Trichoderma sp. THR3 against Sclerotium rolfsii associated with damping-off of durian seedlings. Three isolates, SCO1, SCO2, and SCO3, were obtained from symptomatic seedlings and identified using morphological characteristics and internal transcribed spacer sequence analysis. In pathogenicity tests conducted on two-month-old durian seedlings, SCO1 was the most aggressive isolate and produced 100% disease incidence. In dual culture, Trichoderma sp. THR3 inhibited the mycelial growth of SCO1 by 88.7% at 7 days after inoculation. In the in planta experiment using one-year-old grafted durian plants, treatment with Trichoderma sp. THR3 resulted in a 50% numerical reduction in final disease severity caused by S. rolfsii SCO1 relative to the pathogen-inoculated control at 9 days after inoculation (DAI). Disease incidence was numerically lower in THR3-treated plants (60%) than in the pathogen-inoculated control (100%); however, this difference was not statistically significant (p > 0.05). These findings indicate the potential of Trichoderma sp. THR3 as a candidate biological control agent against S. rolfsii SCO1 in grafted durian nursery plants, although further replicated experiments are needed to confirm its efficacy under nursery and field conditions.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213457

Authors: Riwen Fei Jiayi Liu Minghang Guo Hongmei Zhu Siyang Duan Jiansong You Xiaoyu Li

Exogenous abscisic acid (ABA) enhances freezing tolerance, yet its dose-specificity and metabolic trade-offs in ornamental woody species remain poorly characterized. Here, we investigated the effects of exogenous ABA (0, 10, 30, 50 mg·L−1) on Rhododendron obtusum ‘Fen Zhuanglou’ seedlings exposed to −4 °C for 5 days. Based on phenotypic screening, 10 mg·L−1 ABA was identified as the hormetic optimum, whereas 50 mg·L−1 failed to alleviate injury. Under freezing stress, optimal ABA treatment (10 mg·L−1) reduced malondialdehyde (MDA) content by 23.5% compared to untreated controls, while partially rescuing superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), and catalase (CAT) activities by 40.0%, 29.2%, and 35.2%, respectively. Notably, ABA triggered a metabolic trade-off: soluble protein declined by 22.98% while soluble sugar increased by 6.05%, suggesting a reallocation of metabolic resources. Furthermore, pigment profiling suggested impaired chlorophyll catabolism in unprotected leaves—chlorophyll a and xanthophylls accumulated to 7-fold and 43-fold the levels of ABA-treated leaves—whereas ABA-treated leaves retained a higher carotenoid fraction (7-fold). These findings establish that ABA-mediated freezing tolerance operates through a metabolic trade-off rather than universal preservation, providing an evidence-based protocol (10 mg·L−1) for ornamental rhododendron production in cold regions.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213456

Authors: Hui Hu Nana Li Yanbing Yan Yongsheng Cui Xiaolong Hou Pengfei Wu

In the context of global warming and declining forest ecosystem services, this study explores underplanting effects on Pinus massoniana stand biomass allocation and soil C–N–P stoichiometry to support sustainable plantation management in southern China. Two underplanting treatments were established: P. massoniana underplanted with Schima superba (denoted by PS), and P. massoniana underplanted with S. superba + Michelia macclurei + Castanopsis hystrix (denoted by PSMC). A pure P. massoniana stand was set as the control (CK). The tree height, DBH and soil C–N–P stoichiometric characteristics were measured, and we compared biomass distribution among the tree layer, understory vegetation layer and litter layer. The results showed that compared with CK and PS, the PSMC significantly promoted the height and DBH growth of P. massoniana and substantially increased the biomass of all tree (leaves, branches, stems, and roots), sustaining higher stand productivity. In contrast, underplanted S. superba inhibited the growth of P. massoniana. Both underplanting treatments significantly reduced understory vegetation biomass, with herbs dominating the understory layer in both treatments. Litter biomass was the lowest under the PS treatment and was significantly lower than others. Compared with CK, both the PS and PSMC treatments significantly increased soil C, N, and P contents as well as soil C:P and N:P ratios in the 0–20 cm and 20–40 cm soil layers. The DBH of P. massoniana was positively correlated with soil C, N, and P concentrations in the 0–20 cm and 20–40 cm soil layers, and it exhibited an extremely significant positive correlation with soil N concentration and soil N:P ratio in the 40–60 cm soil layer. Tree-layer biomass was significantly increased with soil P concentration and the N:P ratio in the 0–20 cm soil layer, and it showed an extremely significant positive correlation with soil C and N concentrations in the 0–20 cm and 20–40 cm soil layers, as well as with soil N concentration and the N:P ratio in the 40–60 cm soil layer. In addition, litter-layer biomass was significantly and positively correlated with soil P concentration in the 20–40 cm soil layer. This association occurs because mixed underplanted broadleaves capture phosphorus released by litter decomposition via their well-developed roots and redistribute P to subsoil, and subsoil P availability controls litter production by regulating tree nutrient status. In conclusion, compared with CK, PSMC significantly improved P. massoniana individual growth and tree-layer biomass, while decreasing understory vegetation biomass and raising the 40–60 cm soil N:P ratio. Deep-soil N:P ratio was positively correlated with tree-layer biomass, implying that PSMC supports high stand productivity.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213455

Authors: Yu-Xuan Tian Syuan-You Lin

Glycine betaine (GB) is used as an abiotic-stress biostimulant, but the performance of repeated foliar applications in perennial fruit crops under commercial conditions remains poorly defined. We evaluated four application strategies delivering cumulative GB inputs of 0, 42.5, 59.8, or 99.7 kg·ha−1 to greenhouse-grown ‘Tainung No. 1’ passion fruit (Passiflora edulis × P. edulis f. flavicarpa) during the cool season. Greenhouse temperature, vegetative growth, leaf greenness, visible reproductive development, marketable yield, and fruit quality were assessed. During the treatment period, 59 h below 10 °C were recorded, predominantly at night (83.1%). The 42.5 and 59.8 kg·ha−1 strategies did not consistently improve crop performance relative to the control. The 99.7 kg ha−1 strategy was associated with lower main-vine length during crop development, although final main-vine length at 144 DAT did not differ significantly from the control. The first visible flower bud appeared at a significantly higher node under 99.7 kg·ha−1 than in the control (27.1 vs. 20.8). Its appearance was significantly later under 99.7 than under 42.5 kg·ha−1 (29.9 vs. 19.6 DAT), but did not differ significantly from the control (21.0 DAT). The 99.7 kg ha−1 strategy also reduced marketable fruit number and yield by 14.6% and 13.8%, respectively. Fruit dimensions, individual fruit mass, and most quality traits were not consistently affected by GB, whereas harvest date more consistently influenced fruit quality. Under the recorded fluctuating thermal conditions, the intensive GB strategy was unfavorable, supporting crop-specific validation before repeated use.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213453

Authors: Rongchun Ye Jianming Luo Ziqing Sun Xinjie Long Hongyan Fu Naying Gao Chenxing Hao Ling Sheng Yunlin Cao Youhan Kong Xianfeng Ma Yan Jin Jian Han

Citrus canker, caused by Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri (Xcc), is commonly managed with copper-based formulations, yet the performance of individual products may differ between laboratory and plant assays. We compared 16 commercial copper-containing formulations in plate-diffusion and root-drench assays, and inhibition zones varied among products. Thiosen Copper, however, produced no visible inhibition zone on agar but suppressed Xcc growth after root application. In sweet orange, this suppression appeared earlier than with Bordeaux Mixture at the same nominal total Cu concentrations. Thiosen Copper raised the leaf chlorophyll index without a significant increase in total leaf Cu, whereas Bordeaux Mixture led to greater leaf Cu accumulation. In separate experiments with Poncirus trifoliata, the two formulations produced different growth and tissue Cu responses, and root treatment altered PtCOPT transcript levels. Transient overexpression of CsCOPT4 in sweet orange leaves was accompanied by lower Xcc populations. These results reveal formulation-specific responses and nominate CsCOPT4 as a candidate for further study.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213452

Authors: Jianhong Xie Jing Wang Juan Xu Lei Cheng Yifan Zeng Qingjun Shu Yaping Wang Baozhong Duan

Polygonatum species are medicinal and edible plants whose polysaccharides (PSPs) have attracted interest for their potential anti-aging effects. This review synthesizes evidence on the structural characteristics, pharmacological activities, molecular mechanisms, and translational prospects of PSPs. Relevant literature was retrieved from Web of Science and the China National Knowledge Infrastructure using terms related to Polygonatum polysaccharides, aging, structural characterization, and bioactivity. PSPs vary in molecular weight, monosaccharide composition, glycosidic linkages, and branching patterns. Studies using cells, Caenorhabditis elegans, and mammals report aging-related benefits associated with reduced oxidative stress and inflammation, modulation of gut microbiota and immune homeostasis, improved mitochondrial function, and metabolic regulation. Reported molecular changes were associated with Nrf2/HO-1, SIRT1/SIRT3, AMPK/PGC-1α, ERK/NF-κB, and DAF-16-related signaling. Although comparisons among PSP fractions suggest associations between structural features and biological activity, causal structure–activity relationships remain unconfirmed. Moreover, most evidence is preclinical, and differences in botanical sources, extraction methods, and polysaccharide characterization limit cross-study comparisons. Future research should prioritize standardized, structurally defined preparations, direct structure–activity testing, pharmacokinetics, long-term safety, and clinical validation to clarify the potential of PSPs for healthy aging.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213451

Authors: Hua Yin Mingyu Zeng Ziwei Song Yinglong Wang Ziyi Liao Yebao Wu Li Li Juan Liu Ke Wang Anping Xiong

Accurate detection of emerged seedlings is essential for intelligent management in the context of industrialized pepper seeding cultivation. Manual assessment of seedling emergence rates is inefficient and subjective. Meanwhile, dense seedling distributions and complex substrate backgrounds in plug trays often cause false positives and missed detections in vision-based systems. To address these issues, Adaptive-Dynamic-Spatial YOLO (ADS-YOLO), a compact detection model, was built based upon YOLO11n. First, an Adaptive Scale Encoding (ASE) module was introduced into the neck to preserve fine-grained spatial information through parallel variable-scale processing and fusion. Second, a Dynamic Scale Sequence Fusion (DYSF) module combined content-aware DySample upsampling with a scale-indexed three-dimensional feature representation to improve multiscale alignment and fusion. Third, a Spatial-Channel Position Attention (SCPA) module was used to emphasize seedling-related responses and suppress interference from substrate particles, water stains, and reflections. On the pepper seedling validation set obtained from a fixed 8:1:1 image-level data split, ADS-YOLO achieved a precision of 79.0%, a recall of 75.5%, and an mAP@0.5 of 78.1%, representing improvements of 3.3, 3.2, and 2.9 percentage points over YOLO11n. The model contained approximately 3.04 M parameters and required 8.1 GFLOPs. Furthermore, a prototype based on offline video-frame analysis was developed to display seedling detections and frame-level counts. The prototype achieved an offline processing throughput of 24.5 FPS and a per-frame end-to-end processing time of 40.8 ms. These measurement results indicate that the method proposed in this paper can be used in practical scenarios, and also lay the foundation for future real-time tracking and counting.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213449

Authors: Xiaodan Xu Zihan Zhang Ningning Sun Sian Peng Tangyi Chen Yanmin Qie Lige Geng Shihui Wang Weina Sun Yongxia Guo Jidao Du

Adzuki bean (Vigna angularis) is an important pulse crop, and rust disease severely restricts its production. Identifying resistance genes is essential for accelerating the development of rust-resistant cultivars through marker-assisted breeding. In this study, genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS) was performed on 178 adzuki bean accessions, generating 124.87 Gb of sequencing data and yielding 12,153 high-quality single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers with an average density of 26.56 SNPs/Mb across the genome. Principal component analysis (PCA) and K-means clustering divided the 178 accessions into three distinct genetic clusters, with the first five principal components explaining 31.90% of the total genetic variation. Population structure analysis based on these SNPs revealed that the cross-entropy criterion reached its minimum at K = 7, partitioning the panel into seven genetic subpopulations (C1–C7). A neighbor-joining phylogenetic tree further resolved the accessions into five major groups. Rust resistance was assessed at the seedling stage under greenhouse conditions with artificial inoculation of Uromyces vignae isolate ZXL01, and at the adult stage under natural field infection at a single experimental site. Genome-wide association analysis (GWAS) was conducted separately for the two assessments and identified fifteen SNPs significantly associated with rust resistance. Ten SNPs were identified at the seedling stage on chromosomes 1 and 3, while the remaining five SNPs were detected at the adult stage on chromosome 9. The SNPs associated with adult-stage rust resistance were converted into Kompetitive Allele-Specific PCR (KASP) markers, which were subsequently validated in an independent panel. The validation confirmed that the resistance-associated alleles were predominantly detected in highly resistant accessions, suggesting that these markers have potential utility for the preliminary screening of rust-resistant germplasm, although further breeding validation is required.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213450

Authors: Hanlin Liu Xiaoshuo Jiang Chang Lu Yizeng Lu Dan Liu Xin Han Limin Sun

Quercus acutissima is an important tree species of coastal shelterbelts in eastern China; however, soil salinization severely constrains its growth and ecological benefits. Funneliformis mosseae can enhance plant stress resistance, yet the mechanisms by which it regulates salt tolerance in Quercus acutissima remain unclear. In this study, a two-factor pot experiment was conducted on half-sib families of Quercus acutissima with four salinity gradients (0‰, 2‰, 4‰, and 6‰, corresponding to 0%, 0.2%, 0.4%, and 0.6% (w/w) NaCl, respectively) and four inoculant doses (0, 10, 20, and 30 g), with three biological replicates per treatment, and the regulatory pathways were dissected by combining physiological measurements with transcriptome sequencing of functional leaf tissues collected from four selected treatment groups (the uninoculated control, mycorrhizal inoculation alone, salt stress alone, and salt stress combined with mycorrhizal inoculation). The results showed that inoculation with Funneliformis mosseae under salt-free conditions induced a slight stress-like response in Quercus acutissima; inoculation enhanced salt tolerance only under low-salt conditions (≤2‰ NaCl, mass concentration), with the 30 g high-dose inoculant being the most effective; salt stress promoted excessive root lignification and xylem embolism, whereas symbiosis with Funneliformis mosseae alleviated this damage. Successful root colonization by Funneliformis mosseae was established in all inoculated treatments, confirming the formation of a functional mycorrhizal symbiosis under both salt-free and salt-stressed conditions. The pentose phosphate pathway, the inositol phosphate–Ca2+ signaling pathway, and multiple hormone-related pathways coordinately regulated salt tolerance. This study provides a theoretical basis for cultivating Quercus acutissima in salinized soils, offers practical support for afforestation of Quercus acutissima on saline lands in the Yellow River Delta, and contributes to improving the quality and efficiency of coastal shelterbelts.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213448

Authors: Muhammet Öner Cuma Akıncı

Water scarcity is a recurrent constraint to durum wheat production in semi-arid Mediterranean-type environments, yet genotype performance can change sharply with the timing and severity of seasonal drought. This study quantified phenological, chlorophyll-related, yield-component, and grain-yield responses of 45 durum wheat genotypes grown during 2021–2022 and 2022–2023 under rainfed and supplementary-irrigated field conditions in Diyarbakır, southeastern Türkiye. The experiment comprised equal-sized plots with four replications under each water regime. Supplementary irrigation was delivered by drip irrigation in five applications beginning at stem elongation. Precipitation from sowing to heading was 187.0 mm in 2021–2022 and 285.5 mm in 2022–2023, and April was warmer in the first season (17.9 °C versus 14.7 °C). Grain yield was significantly affected by growing season, water regime, genotype, and all two- and three-way interactions (p < 0.01), although diagnostic tests indicated heterogeneous residual variance among environments and the combined fixed-effect ANOVA is therefore interpreted cautiously. Mean grain yield under rainfed conditions was 466.5 and 3254.3 kg ha−1 in the first and second seasons, respectively, compared with 4208.1 and 5560.9 kg ha−1 under supplementary irrigation. The exceptionally low first-season rainfed yield represents a near-crop-failure environment; stand-count data were not available to separate establishment losses from subsequent drought effects. Pooled drought indices descriptively ranked Fırat-93 highest for STI (0.638) and GMP (3901.4 kg ha−1), whereas Şahinbey had the highest pooled YSI (0.518); these index differences were not subjected to inferential significance testing and should not be interpreted as statistically distinct tolerance classes. Grain yield was associated with SPAD and yield components in pooled genotype means, but these associations were environment dependent. The results characterize genotype responses across four site-year × water-regime combinations and provide hypotheses for validation in broader multi-location and multi-year trials.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213447

Authors: Dan Jackson Carmen Mata Nadine Field Lorena Pizarro Adi Avni Stephen C. Whisson Keith Miller Stanley W. Botchway Charlotte Pain Verena Kriechbaumer

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a dynamic membrane network that plays essential roles in protein secretion, lipid biosynthesis and cellular signalling. Its architecture is maintained by conserved ER-shaping proteins, including the recently identified Lunapark (LNP) family, which have primarily been characterised in Arabidopsis thaliana. Whether these mechanisms are conserved in crop species remains unknown. Here, we identify and characterise two tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) LNP proteins, SlyLNP1 and SlyLNP2, and investigate their roles in ER organisation and function. Both proteins localised to the ER but displayed distinct distribution patterns, with SlyLNP1 preferentially associated with cisternae and SlyLNP2 localising to both cisternae and tubules. Overexpression of either protein promoted cisternal expansion and altered ER network organisation. FRET-FLIM analyses demonstrated that both SlyLNP proteins interact with themselves, each other, the ER fusogen RHD3 and the membrane-curvature protein RTN1, indicating conservation of the ER-shaping machinery. Furthermore, SlyLNP overexpression reduced ER-to-Golgi trafficking, linking ER remodelling with secretory pathway function. In contrast to their Arabidopsis counterparts, however, expression of tomato LNP proteins in Nicotiana benthamiana did not reduce infection by Phytophthora infestans. Together, our findings demonstrate that the molecular mechanisms governing ER architecture are highly conserved in tomato while revealing that the physiological consequences of Lunapark-mediated ER remodelling have diverged between plant species.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213446

Authors: Carlos Frey José Luis Acebes

Many of the processes studied in plant physiology, including stomatal regulation, responses to drought, formation of graft unions, interactions with pathogens, floral thermogenesis and freezing, are dynamic but difficult for students to observe directly. Consequently, teaching these topics often relies on indirect measurements or theoretical explanations, which makes it difficult for students to understand the link between physiological concepts and observable plant behaviour. Infrared thermography offers a rapid, non-invasive way to visualise temperature patterns that reflect underlying physiological processes. This article presents ten inquiry-based laboratory and field activities that integrate infrared thermography into undergraduate plant physiology teaching. Rather than focusing on the technology itself, the activities are organised around fundamental physiological concepts, challenging students to formulate hypotheses, interpret thermal images and relate temperature patterns to plant function. The activities cover topics such as water relations and transpiration, graft union formation, plant–pathogen interactions, drought detection, host–parasitic plant relationships, floral thermogenesis, floral cooling, ice nucleation, seed vigour assessment and responses to abiotic and biotic stresses. Beyond illustrating individual physiological phenomena, the activities emphasise the unifying principle that infrared thermography does not simply measure temperature but provides an integrated window into plant physiology by revealing processes that would otherwise be invisible. At the same time, students become familiar with a research tool that is increasingly used in plant science, precision agriculture and crop phenotyping. As infrared cameras become more affordable and accessible, thermography represents a powerful and realistic approach to enriching inquiry-based learning and strengthening the connection between undergraduate teaching and contemporary plant research.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213445

Authors: Adeel Abbas Rashida Hameed Sidra Balooch Shimeng Yang Aitezaz Ali Shahani Usman Zulfiqar Mohammed Zari

This study investigated the effects of rice straw biochar produced at 450 °C (RBC450) and 700 °C (RBC700) on Pb immobilization, soil properties, and the physiological and molecular responses of Wedelia trilobata (L.) grown in Pb-contaminated soil. Biochar was applied at 1%, 2.5%, and 5% (w/w) to soil contaminated with 150 mg kg−1 Pb. Changes in soil physicochemical properties, Pb availability and accumulation in plant tissues, physiological performance, oxidative stress indicators, antioxidant enzyme activities, and antioxidant-related gene expression were evaluated. Both biochars reduced soil-available Pb and Pb accumulation in roots and shoots, with RBC700 showing greater Pb immobilization. Biochar application also improved soil pH, electrical conductivity, organic carbon, nitrate nitrogen, and available phosphorus. In plants, biochar enhanced catalase and peroxidase activities while reducing malondialdehyde accumulation and reactive oxygen species production, indicating alleviation of Pb-induced oxidative stress. qRT-PCR analysis further showed modulation of SOD-, POD-, and CAT-related antioxidant responses under Pb stress, with RBC450 treatment strengthening antioxidant defense at the transcriptional level. Overall, rice straw biochar reduced soil-extractable Pb and modified soil physicochemical properties and antioxidant responses in W. trilobata, with RBC700 showing greater effectiveness in decreasing Pb extractability. However, these changes did not consistently restore all physiological parameters under Pb stress.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213444

Authors: Hanjian Hu Lingchao He Rujie Ye Kang Xu

Multiple morphological factors of desert plants were employed to construct aboveground biomass (AGB) estimation models in the Gobi Desert, located in the northwestern part of Gansu Province, China, where gravel surfaces account for more than half the area. At the individual scale, estimation models incorporating variables related to canopy cover accurately estimated AGB (R2 = 0.623~0.848). At the quadrat scale, the cover-allometric model effectively estimated multi-species AGB (AGB = 0.302 × Ct0.900, R2 = 0.725). At the regional scale, the model incorporating relative canopy cover was effective for estimating aboveground biomass density (AGBD) and could be combined with regional area estimates to determine the AGB of desert plants at any spatial scale (AGBD = 20.114 × Cr1.043, R2 = 0.8313). AGB estimation models based on canopy cover not only overcome scale limitations but also exhibit a tendency toward improved model fit with increasing scales. However, when applied to remote-sensing data, the model exhibits relatively low fitting accuracy (AGBD = 4.398 × Cr0.538, R2 = 0.3656). It demonstrates good stability when applied to Gobi Desert habitats similar to the study area, but its applicability in other arid regions still requires further validation.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213443

Authors: Klaudija Carović-Stanko Boris Lazarević Tomislav Javornik Monika Vidak Kristina Kljak

Intercropping can affect nutrient availability and plant biochemical composition, but information on these effects in medicinal and aromatic plants is still limited. This study evaluated the effects of intercropping with common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) on mineral composition, carotenoids, and tocopherols in two basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) cultivars, ‘Genovese’ and ‘Sweet basil’, grown at different basil–bean ratios. Intercropping significantly affected all analyzed minerals, although the response differed between cultivars for several elements. ‘Genovese’ showed increases in Zn, Mn, and Cu, while Zn content in ‘Sweet basil’ remained relatively stable. In contrast, N, P, and Fe concentrations decreased in some treatments. Total carotenoids and total lutein decreased under intercropping in both cultivars, whereas β-carotene responses were less consistent and depended on cultivar and intercropping ratio. In contrast, total tocopherols and α-tocopherol generally increased under intercropping. Zn, Mn, and Cu were negatively correlated with several carotenoids but positively correlated with tocopherols. PCA separated monocropped from most intercropped samples and showed that both mineral and antioxidant variables contributed to sample differentiation. These findings show that the compositional response of basil to common bean intercropping depends on cultivar, intercropping ratio, and the group of compounds considered.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213442

Authors: Changli Mao Xia Zeng Tian Yang Chenwanli Li Cheng Zheng Junming Ai Xiaodong Liu Jing Zhang Xiaoping Zhu Haoqi Shi Yu Wu Jin Liu

Natural rubber from Hevea brasiliensis serves as an irreplaceable industrial raw material. Whether rubber-yield potential is constrained by sucrose-sink sucrose partitioning remains incompletely understood. Here, we integrated transcriptomics and targeted sugar metabolomics across leaves, bark and latex from three H. brasiliensis clones with contrasting yields (designated H, M, and L). Transcriptomic profiling revealed tissue-specific functional differentiation: leaves were enriched in photosynthetic carbon fixation, bark in substance transport, and latex in defence and regeneration. The H clone did not show enhanced transcriptional enrichment of photosynthetic pathways relative to the L clone. Instead, it displayed a higher transcript abundance of invertase and sucrose synthase genes alongside elevated hexose levels, pointing to putative genotypic differences in sucrose hydrolysis and hexose turnover. Metabolomic profiling revealed greater sucrose accumulation in leaves of the L clone, accompanied by relatively low sucrose concentrations in latex. WGCNA analysis identified the MEpink module as strongly correlated with leaf sucrose content. This module is enriched in thiamine and cyanoamino acid metabolism and contains candidate transcription factors WRKY40, MYC2 and NAC002. Our results suggest that yield variation among these clones correlates with distinct sucrose distribution and utilization profiles. These multi-omics signatures provide a molecular resource to support high-yield rubber tree breeding.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213441

Authors: Emre Yazar Bülent Akgün Emre Babur Sinan Kordon Erdi Ekren

Türkiye holds the world’s largest natural stands of Lebanon cedar (Cedrus libani A. Rich.) and extensive Crimean juniper forest (Juniperus excelsa M. Bieb.), together comprising 884,361 ha of closed, drought-exposed forest. Both assimilate at needle water potentials near −3.0 MPa, yet lose part of their potential assimilation to photorespiration and to stomatal closure under water deficit. A literature-parameterized scenario model relaxes both constraints against a radiation-limited ceiling. The zonal photorespiratory and stomatal input fractions are structured expert estimates, not measurements, which are: 8–16% and 14–28% of potential gross primary production (GPP), or 13–23% and 11–23% after coupling. Together they reduce weighted-mean net primary productivity from 3.29 to 2.17 Mg C ha−1 yr−1, a 34.1% reduction in potential GPP (Monte Carlo interval 31.0–36.4%, conditional on the elicitation). Of that loss, 39–46% is obligate photorespiration beyond management reach, depending on how the jointly caused interaction is assigned; the obligate share falls along the aridity gradient. Radial growth in these species occupies a narrow climatic window that does not coincide with peak assimilation, so forgone wood is reported as a function of the source-control coefficient φ, with φ = 1 as an upper bound. At φ = 1, the estate forgoes up to 1.5 million m3 yr−1 of stemwood, and the 3.6 million Mg yr−1 of unfixed carbon (as CO2-equivalent, not net sequestration) is worth, together with that wood, about US$ 0.20 billion; at φ = 0.5 the wood and the value halve, and at φ = 0 no wood is forgone.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213440

Authors: Lujie Xie Jie Liu Hui Zhang Qingqing Wang Pei Yu Yuchun Li Xinfang Lv

Eelgrass (Zostera marina L.) is a marine angiosperm exposed to substantial salinity fluctuations, yet the transcriptional mechanisms associated with its salinity adaptation responses remain incompletely understood. To characterize the NAC transcription factor family and its potential involvement in salinity responses, we performed genome-wide identification, phylogenetic, structural, duplication, promoter, and expression analyses in Z. marina, followed by quantitative reverse transcription PCR (qRT-PCR) validation. Sixty-three ZmNAC genes were identified and classified into six phylogenetic groups. Most encoded proteins contained a conserved N-terminal NAC domain but varied considerably in length, motif composition, gene structure, and predicted subcellular localization. Duplication analysis classified 55 genes as dispersed duplicates, seven as whole-genome duplication (WGD) or segmental duplicates, and one as a proximal duplicate. Promoter analysis identified 64 cis-acting element types associated mainly with light, phytohormone, and stress responses. RNA-seq analysis of roots, stems, and leaves after 24 h at NaCl concentrations of 0‰, 24‰, and 40‰ revealed distinct salinity- and tissue-dependent expression patterns among the ZmNAC family members. Expression patterns of four candidate genes in leaves, assessed by qRT-PCR, were largely consistent with the RNA-seq results. These findings reveal structural and expression diversification within the ZmNAC family and identify candidate genes for further functional investigation of salinity responses in eelgrass.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213439

Authors: Yaxing Wu Fang Wang Shuai Liu Tiancheng Dai Jing Deng Lamei Jiang Amanula Yimingniyazi Shanshan Wang

Intraspecific competition shapes high-density monodominant communities of invasive plants, but how density is associated with rhizosphere microbial reassembly and soil metabolite accumulation via root exudates remains unclear. We established four planting densities (1, 3, 5, and 10 plants per pot) and integrated growth and photosynthetic physiology, root exudate metabolomics, rhizosphere metagenomics, and soil metabolomics using Mantel tests and variable-level correlation analysis. Increasing density reduced all traits except plant height, which showed a slight, non-significant increase followed by a significant decrease. Root exudates shifted from phenolic acid/terpenoid dominance at low density to sugar/peptide dominance at high density. Low-density-enriched bacterial genera were positively correlated with biomass, whereas high-density-enriched genera (e.g., Ilumatobacter, Allosphingosinicella) were negatively correlated. Soil metabolites such as Glutarate Semialdehyde and Sutherlandin D were negatively correlated with biomass, root traits, and photosynthesis. Mantel tests showed strong correlations between plant phenotypes and root exudates (r = 0.80) and between exudates and soil metabolites (r = 0.83). Variable-level analysis linked phenolic acid exudates to putatively growth-associated bacteria (e.g., Flavitalea, Blastococcus) and sugar/peptide exudates to putatively stress-adapted bacteria (e.g., Allosphingosinicella, Ilumatobacter), which were positively correlated with Glutarate Semialdehyde and Sutherlandin D accumulation. These results indicate that density-associated exudate changes synchronized with rhizosphere microbial reassembly and soil metabolite accumulation, forming an “exudate–microbe–metabolite” cascade. This cascade may buffer against high-density intraspecific competition and help explain monodominant community formation in invaded ranges.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213438

Authors: Emre Yazar Bülent Akgün Emre Babur

Rising atmospheric CO2 suppresses photorespiration, whereas warming and drying can limit leaf carbon gain. We coupled a Farquhar–von Caemmerer–Berry photosynthesis model with soil–plant hydraulics and a leaf energy balance, assigning photosystem II thermal thresholds based on leaf habit. Using ISIMIP3b forcing from five CMIP6 models, we simulated eight tree species across 27 species–site combinations at six locations in Türkiye, comparing 2020–2030 with 2070–2080 under SSP5-8.5. With soil water tracked year-round, the mean seasonal net assimilation increased by 106.5 gC m−2 of leaf area (95% CI: +43 to +167), with declines in 11 of 135 cells; with soil moisture reset each season, it increased by 130.3 gC m−2 (95% CI: +76 to +187). In the reset configuration, the contributions were +219.5 gC m−2 from CO2, −66.7 from temperature and the associated vapor pressure deficit (VPD), −38.8 from precipitation, and −2.8 from radiation (residual: +19.1). Species and sites accounted for 81% of the fitted variance, compared to 3.1% for GCMs. Days with peak leaf temperature exceeding assigned thermal thresholds increased from 1.5 to 12.2 per season, primarily in broadleaved species. This number depends on the assumed thresholds (16.9 days with a common threshold of 44 °C), energy balance parameters, and stomatal behavior, and does not quantify tissue damage. Within the tested configurations, higher modeled leaf assimilation coexisted with more frequent threshold exceedance. Neither outcome alone establishes stand productivity or forest resilience.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213437

Authors: Thales S. Coutinho Naédja K. M. Luna Edlley M. Pessoa

The phylogenetic relationships of Waltheria (Malvaceae) species were investigated, testing its monophyly and infrageneric classification. Approximately half of the genus was sampled, including its two sections, as well as 10 species from three sections of its sister genus Melochia. Phylogenetic inferences were based on Bayesian inference and maximum likelihood analyses of plastid (matK, trnL-F) and nuclear (nrITS) markers. The analyses recovered Waltheria s.l. as non-monophyletic, with Melochia species nested within it. Notably, species of W. sect. Stegowaltheria form a strongly supported sister clade to Melochia. These results indicated the need for taxonomic changes to restore monophyly, and Stegowaltheria was elevated to generic rank, as this required only three new combinations, which are also provided. The new genus is recognized by clear diagnostic features, including the presence of simple trichomes on the branches, stipule shape, capsules with operculate dehiscence, and verrucose seeds. This study contributes to the systematics of Hermannieae and proposes a revised taxonomic circumscription based on molecular and morphological evidence.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213435

Authors: Arezoo Paravar Ramin Piri Ademola Emmanuel Adetunji Farzin Abdollahi

Lallemantia species are oilseed crops grown primarily for their seeds; therefore, maintaining the quality of their seeds is crucial for agricultural productivity. However, declining seed quality constitutes a critical challenge to seed sector stakeholders. Prolonged storage duration, elevated storage temperature, and increased seed moisture content are key factors influencing quality loss. We investigated physiological and biochemical processes associated with seed deterioration in L. iberica and L. royleana seeds stored under different temperatures (15 °C, 35 °C, and 45 °C), moisture contents (5%, 9%, 13%, and 17%), and storage durations (0, 30, 60, and 90 days). Seed viability progressively declined with increasing storage temperature, seed moisture content, and storage duration, reaching 2% in L. iberica and 14% in L. royleana under the most severe storage conditions (45 °C, 17% seed moisture content, and 90 days of storage). Gradual compromise of membrane integrity was associated with increased electrical conductivity (EC), ROS (H2O2 and O2•−), and malondialdehyde (MDA) content. Seed deterioration was also characterized by a compromised antioxidant defense system and degradation of seed storage compounds. We observed negative correlations between EC, pH, H2O2, O2•−, MDA, glucose, and fructose and germination rate, viability, antioxidant system, and seed storage compounds. Lallemantia iberica seeds exhibited higher levels of glucose, fructose, EC, H2O2, O2•−, and MDA, as well as greater susceptibility to adverse storage conditions than those of L. royleana, as evidenced by greater reductions in viability, germination rate, pH, antioxidant system, and seed storage compounds. Among the storage conditions evaluated, seeds stored at 5% seed moisture content and 15 °C for up to 30 days generally maintained higher viability, germination rate, vigor, antioxidant activity, and seed storage compounds, along with lower levels of membrane damage. However, the suitability of storage conditions was species- and duration-specific, as L. royleana maintained 83% viability at 5% moisture content and 35 °C after 90 days. The findings indicate that unfavorable storage conditions induce oxidative stress, membrane damage, weakened antioxidant defenses, and degradation of storage reserves, ultimately reducing seed viability, germination, and vigor.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213436

Authors: Peng Qu Yajuan Xing Guancheng Liu Lijian Xu Qinggui Wang

Nitrous oxide (N2O) is a potent greenhouse gas, and forest-soil N2O emissions are highly sensitive to long-term changes in nitrogen deposition and precipitation regimes. However, how long-term nitrogen addition interacts with reduced precipitation to regulate seasonal soil N2O flux and its associated environmental and process-related factors remains poorly understood in temperate forests. We conducted a 14-year field experiment in a temperate broadleaved–Korean pine forest with four treatments: control (CK), nitrogen addition (NA; 50 kg N ha−1 yr−1), precipitation reduction (PR; 30% throughfall exclusion), and their combination (NAPR). Soil N2O flux was monitored continuously throughout May, July, and September 2023; daily mean fluxes were calculated from the continuous measurements and then averaged to obtain monthly means. Soil properties, inorganic N, dissolved organic carbon (DOC) stoichiometry, and N-transformation-related enzyme indicators were measured once per monitoring month. Reduced precipitation markedly decreased monthly mean N2O flux, with the largest treatment divergence occurring in July. Across all three monitoring periods, N2O flux consistently followed the order NA > CK > PR > NAPR. Under ambient precipitation, N addition increased N2O flux, whereas under reduced precipitation it further decreased N2O flux relative to PR. Nitrogen addition substantially increased NH4+–N, NO3−–N, and total inorganic N under both precipitation regimes, but the particularly low N2O flux under NAPR persisted. Redundancy analysis and correlation analyses showed coordinated variation among soil environmental and resource conditions and N-transformation-related indicators, while random forest analysis identified urease (UE) and ammonia monooxygenase (AMO) among the highest-ranked predictors and showed robust predictive performance under grouped cross-validation. Overall, reduced precipitation reversed the stimulatory effect of long-term nitrogen addition on N2O flux, with the treatment response associated with soil moisture, substrate availability, and N-transformation-related indicators rather than attributable to a single measured pathway.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213434

Authors: Adriana Arnal María A. Rodrigo Pablo García-Murillo Karl-Georg Bernhardt Riccardo Guarino Dario Salemi Angelo Troía Barbara Turner Johanna Weitzel Hendrik Schubert

Most known populations of the charophyte Chara canescens consist entirely of parthenogenetic reproducing females. Conversely, sexual populations are quite rare. A European project is trying to unravel the degree of genetic exchange between C. canescens populations. As part of this issue, interfertility experiments (cross-fertilisation) of females with males from different sites were planned. Of 72 potential combinations, seven were successfully performed, in five of them oospores were produced, and only supposedly cross-fertilised oospores appeared from one crossing (Sechsmahdlacke’s males, Austria x Pauli Murtas’ females, Italy). Among the main drawbacks faced (i) using specimens directly from the field are the low number of sexual populations in Europe; the long distances between sexual populations to obtain specimens simultaneously for the crossings; the low number of male individuals in the populations; and the difficulties in getting “healthy” cultures in the laboratory; whereas, (ii) by using specimens germinated in the laboratory: the relatively low number of germinated individuals in general; the very low number of germinated male individuals; the long time needed for the germination from the sediment oospores and the asynchronous appearance between populations of different origin; and, finally, the possible sympatric existence of both types of females in the same site, and the impossibility of distinguishing among them visually. Regarding this last issue, sympatric occurrence of C. canescens sexually and parthenogenetically reproducing females is confirmed for the first time in the Las Eras water body (Spain). This meant not knowing whether the oospores formed in the three crossings with females from this site were parthenogenetically or sexually produced. Although the interfertility results remain inconclusive regarding reproductive isolation among distant C. canescens populations, the methodological framework presented here provides a solid foundation for future research.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213433

Authors: Serik Kubentayev Daniyar Alibekov Anar Myrzagaliyeva Margarita Ishmuratova Saule Baibossynova Alexander N. Sennikov

Deliberate cultivation is an important pathway for the introduction of non-native plants, some of which establish populations outside cultivation. We compiled a taxonomically standardised checklist of non-native vascular plants recorded as cultivated in Kazakhstan and compared their regional distributions with the national alien-flora inventory. The checklist contains 286 taxa in 200 genera and 60 families, including 136 ornamental and 88 food taxa. Spontaneous occurrence is documented for 108 taxa (37.8%): 66 casual, 37 naturalised but non-invasive and five invasive. Among cultivation-purpose categories containing more than one taxon, the proportion recorded outside cultivation ranges from 25.0% for industrial plants to 76.5% for forage plants. Five invasive taxa, Acer negundo, Ailanthus altissima, Euonymus europaeus, Fraxinus excelsior and Pilosella aurantiaca, were assigned Moderate environmental impact ratings in the published national EICAT assessment. The checklist brings together floristic records of cultivation and independently assessed information on spontaneous occurrence and establishment in Kazakhstan.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213432

Authors: Carmine Marcone Carmine Palmieri Alberto Sellitto Simone Russo Donatella Battaglia Matilde Tessitori Andrea Luvisi Rosemarie Tedeschi

Visual symptoms assessment and PCR assays using rDNA-directed primers, followed by RFLP analysis, were employed to update and extend knowledge on the occurrence of pear decline (PD) phytoplasma in several pear-growing areas of the neighboring regions Campania, Basilicata and Calabria of southern Italy, including those which had previously not been examined. The PD phytoplasma was detected in all symptomatic pear trees examined and in 46 out 63 pools of the pear psylla Cacopsylla pyri insects captured in the surveyed pear orchards. Disease incidence of PD ranged from 10 to 65% in the pear orchards examined. Severe PD symptoms were observed in symptomatic pear trees grafted onto BA29 quince rootstock. Multilocus sequence typing (MLST) analysis of aceF, pnp, imp and secY gene sequences revealed a considerable genetic variability among 30 selected PD phytoplasma-infected samples examined in southern Italy. The highest number of genotypes was observed for pnp and secY genes (five genotypes for each), whereas the highest sequence dissimilarity value between the samples under study 15.1 occurred in the aceF gene. For each gene examined, the most frequently identified genotypes were A24, P4, I40 and S13, respectively. The detected multilocus profiles are compatible with the hypothesis of possible interspecies recombination between ‘Ca. Phytoplasma pyri’ and ‘Ca. Phytoplasma prunorum’, although alternative explanations including mixed infections, preferential amplification and PCR-mediated recombination are not excluded. Fifteen distinct multilocus profiles were obtained from the selected samples and compared with previously published profiles using a similarity network. These findings extend knowledge on the multilocus diversity of PD phytoplasma in southern Italy.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213431

Authors: Deborah Isocrono Sonia Ravera

Arthopyrenia molinii, described from northern Italy in 1858, has never been formally typified or critically reassessed. In the present study, historical collections preserved in European herbaria were examined to locate and evaluate the original material of the species. A specimen preserved in the A.B. Massalongo Herbarium (VER) is designated here as the lectotype, and A. molinii is redescribed on the basis of the lectotype and additional historical material, with emphasis on thallus, ascomatal, hamathecial and ascospore characters. The species is compared with morphologically similar European taxa, particularly A. parolinii, A. platypyrenia, and the pluriseptate varieties of A. persoonii historically treated as A. grisea. Arthopyrenia molinii is characterized by a persistent epiphloeodal tartareous thallus, relatively large perithecia frequently associated with dark areoles, and narrowly clavate to obclavate, 5–7-septate ascospores. This study establishes a nomenclatural reference for A. molinii and provides a provisional morphological circumscription based on historical material. A. molinii appears morphologically distinguishable from the other pluriseptate taxa examined here; however, because it has not been recollected in recent decades its intraspecific variation and the stability of the diagnostic characters identified cannot be adequately assessed.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213430

Authors: Milan Ž. Dimitrijević Niko S. Radulović

Reliable identification of volatile constituents in complex natural matrices by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) remains challenging when closely related regioisomeric and acyl-homologous compounds display similar mass spectra and inconsistent retention-index (RI) data. This study aimed to develop a synthetic GC–MS/RI reference library of diacylated hydroxythymol derivatives and apply it to the characterization of thymol-derived constituents in the root essential oil of Doronicum columnae (Asteraceae). A total of 49 hydroxythymol diesters bearing isobutyryl, 2-methylbutyryl, and isovaleryl residues were included in the library, covering all accessible regioisomeric combinations within the selected set of six positions of additional oxygenation/acylation on the thymol scaffold (C-2, C-5, C-6, C-7, C-8, and C-9); 44 of these compounds have not previously been described. RI values were determined under unified conditions on non-polar DB-5MS and polar HP-Innowax columns, and the compounds were characterized by GC–MS and, when applicable, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. The dataset revealed clear structure–retention relationships, with positional isomerism exerting a stronger influence on retention than acyl-residue variation. Correlation analysis and a semi-empirical model ester subtraction approach revealed regular structure–retention trends within defined regioisomeric series. Application of the synthetic reference library, supported by dual-column RI data, mass spectral comparison, and co-injection, enabled the identification of 16 diacylated hydroxythymol derivatives in the more polar fraction of D. columnae root essential oil, 12 of which are reported here for the first time as natural constituents. The developed approach provides an analytical framework for distinguishing thymol-derived esters in complex botanical matrices.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213429

Authors: Jailson Vieira Aguilar Suellen Rodrigues Ramalho Alana Martini Ferreira Kamila De Sousa Gomes Jessica Carolina Medina-Gallardo Karenn Gianotti Franco Bastos Gisele Marta Martins Bruno Cesar Da Silva Coelho Diego Campos Vasconcelos Leandro da Conceição Layssa Aline Okamura Desiree Soares da Silva

The Pantanal biome harbors a high diversity of aquatic macrophytes that remain largely unexplored as potential sources of plant-derived agricultural biostimulants. This study evaluated six aquatic macrophytes from the Pantanal: Eleocharis cellulosa, Pistia stratiotes, Thalia geniculata, Pontederia sp., Pontederia rotundifolia, and Pontederia azurea as potential sources of plant-derived biostimulants. Aqueous and methanolic extracts were prepared by dynamic maceration and tested on soybean seed treatment. FTIR spectroscopy was used to characterize functional groups. Final germination percentage ranged from 86% to 97% across treatments, and no extract significantly reduced this endpoint compared with the respective controls, indicating the absence of detectable phytotoxic effects under the tested conditions. P. rotundifolia, T. geniculata, and P. azurea promoted increases in biomass and length (up to 0.44 g of epicotyl dry mass and 14.62 cm of root length), emerging as promising biostimulant source. E. cellulosa and Pontederia sp. showed neutral or negative effects on most growth variables. P. stratiotes remained neutral. FTIR analysis revealed distinct spectral profiles between extraction methods. Aqueous extracts showed prominent absorption bands associated with carbohydrate and polysaccharide-related functional groups, whereas methanolic extracts exhibited additional bands consistent with phenolic, aromatic, ester, and lipid-associated functional groups. The aqueous route stood out for producing bioactive extracts without organic solvents, a key advantage for sustainable scaling.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213428

Authors: Weihua Liu Yalin Hu Shengzhao Xu Xiaojie Li Lili Feng Rong Ge Mengyu Zhang

Forest gross primary productivity (GPP) is sensitive to environmental change, and assessing its complex responses is essential for evaluating ecosystem carbon sinks, yet the thresholds and interactions among driving factors remain unclear. By integrating long-term eddy covariance measurements with an optimal ensemble learning model and the SHapley Additive exPlanations algorithm, we identified the key environmental factors, threshold characteristics, and interactions driving daily forest GPP across the temperate climate zone (TCZ) and the cold climate zone (CCZ). Forest GPP exhibits clear nonlinear responses that differ across climate zones: solar radiation and air temperature are the dominant drivers of daily GPP variation in the TCZ and CCZ, respectively. In the TCZ, the threshold at which radiation switches from limiting to promoting GPP is estimated at 151.0 W m−2 (95% confidence interval: 149.6–152.5 W m−2), with thresholds of 12.3 °C (12.2–12.4 °C) for air temperature and 7.5 °C (7.3–7.6 °C) for soil temperature. In the CCZ, the corresponding thresholds are 156.0 W m−2 (153.7–158.1 W m−2), 9.1 °C (9.0–9.2 °C), and 8.6 °C (8.5–8.8 °C). Dominant factors operate primarily through main effects, whereas non-dominant factors exert stronger interaction effects. The direction of the radiation effect on GPP is modulated by temperature, and the radiation–temperature interaction is stronger in the cold than in the temperate climate zone. These findings clarify the nonlinear response characteristics and interaction regulation of forest GPP across climate zones, providing applicable insights for climate-adaptive forest management and carbon policy design.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213427

Authors: Jiangtao Gai Yanping Zheng Kunkun Zhao Xiuxu Ye Jingxiao Fu Yingbo Zhang Huarui Chen Zhiguo Dang

Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is an economically important tropical fruit, and anthocyanins are key determinants of peel color. Although R2R3-MYB transcription factors (TFs) are well-established regulators of anthocyanin biosynthesis in various plant species, their roles in mango remain largely unexplored. In this study, 370 MiMYB genes were identified in the M. indica genome, including 194 MiR2R3-MYB genes that were unevenly distributed across 20 chromosomes. Phylogenetic analysis classified MiR2R3-MYB genes into 39 subfamilies, while gene structure analysis revealed their conserved organization. Tandem and segmental duplication were the primary drivers of gene family expansion, whereas the ratio of nonsynonymous to synonymous substitutions (Ka/Ks) suggested that these genes had predominantly undergone purifying selection. Transcriptomic analysis of red, yellow, and green mango peels identified differentially expressed MiR2R3-MYB genes and anthocyanin structural genes. Additionally, 143 potential MYB-binding sites were predicted in the promoters of anthocyanin structural genes. Integrated transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses revealed significant correlations between 45 differentially expressed MiR2R3-MYB genes and 36 differentially accumulated anthocyanin metabolites. Based on the number of significantly correlated anthocyanin metabolites, eight candidate genes were selected for validation by reverse transcription quantitative real-time PCR (RT-qPCR). Notably, the MiMYB107 candidate gene showed positive correlations with the largest number of anthocyanin components. Subcellular localization analysis of the MiMYB107-eGFP fusion protein indicated predominant nuclear localization, and Western blotting confirmed MiMYB107 protein expression. This study provides valuable insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying anthocyanin accumulation in mango fruit peels.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213425

Authors: Maksim A. Kravets Elizaveta M. Kovalenko Marina E. Vavilkina Anatoly V. Grigorenko Mikhail S. Vlaskin

Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) in Zarrouk medium serves as both the main carbon source and an alkaline buffer, and it accounts for a large share of the cost of spirulina cultivation. This study assessed whether the NaHCO3 concentration in the medium can be reduced, down to complete elimination, for Limnospira platensis grown at elevated CO2 compared with atmospheric CO2. Two sequential experiments (12 days with CO2 enrichment to a 3% setpoint; up to day 8 at atmospheric CO2, by which time the cultures had died) were carried out in a hermetic gas chamber with 10 L column photobioreactors, using a strain adapted to 3% CO2. The experiments differed only in the chamber atmosphere (3% CO2 and atmospheric ~0.04% CO2), the CO2 concentration in the enriched chamber being raised to ≈3% after each sampling and declining to ≈0.5% by the next. In each, eight NaHCO3 concentrations (0–12 g/L, i.e., 0–100% of the reference level of 12 g/L, which is 71% of the standard 16.8 g/L in Zarrouk medium) were tested in triplicate at 3% CO2 and in duplicate at atmospheric CO2. Biomass, pH, carbonate and bicarbonate ions, nitrate and phosphate consumption, and trichome viability were monitored. At 3% CO2, the culture grew at all NaHCO3 concentrations, including medium without added NaHCO3, reaching 3.59–4.11 g/L of biomass by day 12 (7–8% less than in the 12 g/L control at 0 and 0.6 g/L). The pH remained within 8.40–9.40, and the proportion of live trichomes was 92.1–96.3%; trichome viability did not differ significantly between variants, whereas pH did. Under atmospheric CO2 (CO2-adapted inoculum transferred directly to air), the apparent pH rose to 12.75, bicarbonate was depleted, and the culture died within 2 days at 0–1.2 g/L NaHCO3 and by day 8 at 3–12 g/L, with no live trichomes remaining by day 6. These results indicate that, with CO2 enrichment of the chamber atmosphere (3% setpoint, ≈1.4% on average), added NaHCO3 is not required for growth over 12 days: the carbon fixed in the biomass was supplied from the gas phase, and the bicarbonate pool was formed in situ with alkalinity derived mainly from nitrate assimilation. This suggests a possible way to reduce medium costs in spirulina production, which has yet to be confirmed by a CO2 supply and cost analysis.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213426

Authors: Merve Şimşit Muhammed Loay Ali Saliha Dorak Mestan Barış Bülent Aşık Sevinç Başay

This study evaluated the fruit morphological traits, seed yield components, physiological seed quality, and mineral element contents of seven hot pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) cultivars under organic and conventional production systems over two consecutive growing seasons (2022–2023). Overall, both the production system and cultivar significantly (p ≤ 0.05) influenced all evaluated parameters. Conventional farming yielded higher average fruit weight (19.59 g vs. 7.85 g) and provided superior physiological seed vigor, with ‘Demok’ achieving the highest germination percentage (96.00%) and ‘Tatlı Sivri Çetinel’ exhibiting the shortest mean germination time (5.02 days) and highest 1000-seed weight (5.96 g). Conversely, the organic production system promoted mean fruit length (15.13 cm vs. 12.46 cm) and generative seed set capacity. Under organic conditions, ‘Demok’ stood out by reaching the highest fruit length (18.00 cm), fruit diameter (17.86 mm), fruit weight (20.79 g), seed number per fruit (142.34 seeds/fruit), and seed weight per fruit (0.74 g/fruit). Regarding nutrient accumulation, organic management significantly enhanced fruit potassium (10,697.71 mg kg−1 in ‘Demok’) and iron contents, whereas conventional management resulted in higher boron and molybdenum levels. ‘Burdem 016 Demre’ accumulated the highest molybdenum (1580.41 mg kg−1), ‘Yalova Çorbacı Sarı Sivri’ recorded the highest iron under conventional conditions (73.58 mg kg−1), and ‘Sürmeli’ achieved the highest calcium (813.78 mg kg−1) and boron (22.02 mg kg−1) under organic production. In conclusion, performance under organic conditions is strictly trait- and cultivar-dependent, highlighting ‘Demok’ as a superior candidate for organic seed production when appropriate selection criteria are applied.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213424

Authors: Pattama Tongkok Gadewara Matmarurat Pimpilai Saengmanee Nattanan Panjaworayan T-Thienprasert Wannarat Phonphoem Sirinun Suriwong Chatcharee Kaewsuralikhit

Water hyssop (Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst.) is a water-demanding medicinal plant whose responses to declining soil moisture remain insufficiently characterized, particularly in relation to phenolic accumulation. This study investigated the morphological, physiological, and anatomical responses of water hyssop to water limitation and identified the soil moisture conditions associated with enhanced phenolic accumulation. Short-term water limitation (11 days at 9.06% GWC) coincided with peak total phenolic content (TPC), reaching 19.57 mg GAE g−1 DW. Physiological stress was initially detected at 21–22% GWC, evidenced by a decline in relative water content (RWC). Furthermore, 8–9% GWC soil moisture marked a critical physiological threshold characterized by a pronounced reduction in photosynthetic performance and elevated oxidative stress markers. Prolonged water limitation (4 weeks at 20–30% GWC) was associated with lower leaf greenness, RWC, and photosynthetic performance. Concurrently, water restriction led to distinct anatomical alterations, including reduced chloroplast abundance, starch accumulation in the stem cortex, and a reduction in stem xylem vessel diameter. These findings indicate that water deficit affects physiological adaptations, accompanied by increased bioactive compound accumulation.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213423

Authors: Fuyao Chen Shaoliang Zhang Huping Hou Shi An Min Tan

Hexavalent chromium Cr(VI) contamination poses a significant risk to soil ecosystems because of its high mobility and toxicity. Identifying plant species capable of surviving under Cr stress and translocating Cr to harvestable aboveground tissues is a key step in developing phytoremediation strategies. Chromium (Cr) contamination, particularly hexavalent chromium Cr(VI), poses a substantial risk to soil ecosystems. This study evaluated the tolerance, Cr distribution, and antioxidant responses of Neyraudia reynaudiana grown in soil amended with K2Cr2O7. Seedlings were exposed to five nominal Cr treatments (200, 400, 600, 800, and 1000 mg kg−1) and sampled at 30, 60, 90, 120, and 150 days. Total Cr concentrations were determined in soil, roots, and shoots; translocation factor (TF) and shoot bioconcentration factor (BCF) were calculated. The activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), catalase (CAT), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), and glutathione reductase (GR) were also measured. N. reynaudiana remained viable throughout the 150 d exposure period, including under the highest nominal Cr treatment. At 150 d, TF exceeded 1.0 in the Cr400–Cr1000 treatments and reached a maximum of 1.50 in the Cr600 treatment, indicating substantial root-to-shoot Cr translocation under these conditions. In contrast, shoot BCF values remained below 0.30 (0.20–0.29 at 150 d), indicating limited concentration-based Cr enrichment in aboveground tissues. Soil total Cr concentrations declined during cultivation; however, biomass-based Cr mass balance is required to quantify net plant-associated Cr removal. The activities of SOD, POD, CAT, APX, and GR showed distinct Cr-concentration- and growth-stage-dependent responses, with the overall antioxidant response generally strongest at intermediate Cr concentrations and attenuated under the highest treatment. These findings indicate that N. reynaudiana has tolerance to Cr(VI) stress and the capacity for root-to-shoot Cr translocation in a controlled pot experiment. Its practical phytoremediation efficiency requires further evaluation using biomass-based Cr accumulation, Cr speciation, and field validation. By characterizing the Cr tolerance and translocation responses of a native slope-restoration species, this study provides a physiological basis for evaluating N. reynaudiana as a candidate plant for integrated stabilization and phytoextraction-oriented remediation strategies at Cr-contaminated sites. It also identifies the key evidence needed to translate pot-scale responses into reliable site-specific remediation assessments.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213422

Authors: Jinhang Xu Chenchen Wang Xixian Kang Jie Li Xiangyang Sun

We compared soil biochemical properties in four 11-year-old plantations established under Beijing’s Plain Afforestation Project in the Yanqing–Huailai Basin. The plantations were dominated by Populus alba, Ulmus pumila, Salix matsudana, and Pinus tabuliformis, with three plots per plantation. Soil properties were measured at 0–10, 10–30, and 30–60 cm; β-glucosidase (BG), N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase, urease (UE), and dehydrogenase activities were measured at the two upper depths. Two-way mixed-design analysis of variance assessed plantation type, soil depth, and their interaction. Plantation-type effects were significant for available potassium (AK), soil organic carbon (SOC), nitrate (NO3−), and all four enzyme activities, but not for pH, available phosphorus, or alkali-hydrolyzable nitrogen. Significant interactions occurred for NO3−, AK, UE, and BG. Mean enzyme activities were higher at 0–10 cm than at 10–30 cm. Pearson analysis of 24 plot-by-depth observations showed positive BG–SOC (r = 0.516) and UE–AK (r = 0.766) associations and a negative UE–NO3− association (r = −0.665). Redundancy analysis based on eight plantation-by-depth means identified AK as the only significant explanatory variable, accounting for 41.0% of enzyme activity variation (p = 0.018). These findings provide a regional baseline for assessing soil nutrient conditions and selected biochemical activities across plantation types and soil depths.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213421

Authors: Flor Lidia Bustamante-Fustamante Juan E. Valdiviezo-Campos María Andrea Serrano Boza Camila Alessandra Vasquez Ramirez Jessica Paola Bejarano Suca Ramiro Fiestas-Jacinto Michelle Lozada-Urbano Eulalia V. Tapia Junior F. Siguas-Peña

Urban medicinal plant markets preserve traditional knowledge, but information on the quality and chemical characteristics of commercial plant materials remains limited. This study combined a descriptive cross-sectional survey of 48 medicinal plant vendors at Gamarra Market, Lima, Peru, with selected physicochemical, elemental, and phytochemical analyses of commercial leaves of Aristeguietia ballii (Oliv.) R.M.King & H.Rob., Borago officinalis L., Senecio canescens (Bonpl.) Cuatrec., and Eucalyptus globulus Labill. The survey documented plant names, reported medicinal uses, plant parts, preparation methods, and routes of administration. Laboratory analyses included proximate composition, arsenic (As), lead (Pb), and mercury (Hg) determination, preliminary phytochemical screening, spectrophotometric estimates of total phenolic content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC), and DPPH and ABTS radical-scavenging assays. A. ballii had the highest concentrations of As (2.18 mg/kg) and Pb (2.54 mg/kg) among the materials analyzed, while Hg was below the detection limit in all samples. E. globulus yielded positive reactions in the greatest number of qualitative screening assays and the highest TPC in its hydroethanolic extract (53.22 ± 1.00 mg GAE/g DS) and TFC in its chloroform-derived extract (21.92 ± 0.41 mg QE/g DS). Hydroethanolic B. officinalis had the highest DPPH response (33.39 ± 0.63 mg TE/g DS), whereas aqueous E. globulus had the highest ABTS response (63.60 ± 1.19 mg TE/g DS). These findings characterize the interviewed vendors’ reports and the commercial samples analyzed. Convenience sampling and one composite commercial sample per species limit generalizability, and the chemical assays do not establish respiratory efficacy or overall toxicological safety.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213420

Authors: Jianan Zhu Yingqi Sun Liqiang Meng Xiangxiang Wang Xinkai Ma Chao Jiang

Rhizobium–soybean symbiosis plays a critical role in sustainable agriculture. We isolated the slow-growing strain HK601 from the soybean cultivar ‘Heike 60’ in cold-region Heilongjiang, China, and identified it as Bradyrhizobium ottawaense by four-gene phylogeny. In pot trials, HK601 inoculation significantly promoted plant growth, effective nodule number, and total nitrogen content. HK601 also formed effective nodules on Williams 82 and 11 Heilongjiang cultivars, showing broad-spectrum nodulation. Time-series transcriptomes of symbiotic soybean roots showed 14 dpi was a key turning point in transcriptional reprogramming. Before 14 dpi, signal transduction and nodule structural development DEGs were active. After 14 dpi, DEGs related to ribosome assembly and translation declined, whereas DEGs involved in isoflavonoid biosynthesis, MAPK signaling, and defense-related pathways were transcriptionally up-regulated. This complementarity may reflect a shift from basal metabolism to symbiotic functions. The temporally cascaded activation of isoflavonoid and MAPK pathways during the mid-to-late stages may reflect a potential dual role in symbiotic signaling and defense, thereby contributing to symbiotic homeostasis. Sharp up-regulation of symbiotic marker genes (leghemoglobin and nodulins) after 14 dpi provided transcriptional evidence for the establishment of symbiotic nitrogen fixation. This study provides a promising candidate strain for cold-region soybean production and a new transcriptomic perspective on temporal host–rhizobia regulation.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213419

Authors: Taras Pasternak Douglas Steinmacher

Plant cell totipotency is a fundamental property of the plant kingdom. Although most plant cells contain essentially identical genetic information, only a subset retains the ability to re-enter the cell cycle, and even fewer keep the ability to regenerate whole plants. One possible explanation is that cells differ in their chromatin organization. Here, we investigated whether 3D nuclear architecture reflected cell-cycle probability and cell-cycle re-entry and totipotent reprogramming. Using confocal profiling across root tissue layers (n = 50 nuclei/layer; N ≥ 3 biological replicates) and root protoplast microcultures of Arabidopsis thaliana and Medicago sativa, we show that nuclear geometry serves as a quantifiable physical proxy(marker/indicator) for cell permissiveness. In A. thaliana, non-competent cortical cells face a steep ~78% nuclear volume reduction barrier (>10,000 µm3 to ~2500 µm3), restricting cell-cycle entry (0%). In M. sativa, shallower structural gradients allow cortical cells to divide (>70%), yielding non-regenerative callus. Conversely, pericycle cells maintaining compact nuclear states retain shoot organogenesis (>35%). Uncoupling tissue constraints confirms that cell-cycle re-entry and true totipotency represent two distinct biophysical transitions. Re-establishing whole plants strictly requires transitioning to a low-entropy 3D nuclear state, establishing baseline nuclear geometry as a non-invasive physical indicator of developmental competence. These findings establish baseline nuclear geometry as a non-invasive morphological indicator to distinguish vegetative proliferation from true regenerative competence.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213418

Authors: Reyilamu Maimaitituerxun Qingli Liang Mierkamili Maimaiti Aysajan Abdusalam

Sexual system plasticity strongly shapes plant reproductive fitness. However, empirical studies on andromonoecy have mostly focused on wild species, leaving gaps in our knowledge regarding cultivated fruit trees. In this study, we aimed to investigate the sexual system characteristics and adaptive responses to resource conditions of pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) in Kashi, Xinjiang, China. We assessed floral morphology and biomass, conducted resource manipulation treatments, pollen viability assays, and controlled pollination experiments, and observed pollinators. Our results indicated functional andromonoecy in pomegranate, in which male flowers originate from pistil degeneration, potentially in response to resource limitations within inflorescences. Hermaphroditic flowers showed advantages in morphology, biomass, floral rewards, and pollinator visitation. Male flowers could not produce fruits as maternal parents but generated viable pollen capable of siring progeny. However, they secreted less nectar and received significantly fewer pollinator visits than hermaphroditic flowers. These findings are consistent with the optimal resource reallocation hypothesis for maintaining andromonoecy, suggesting that male flowers may constitute a resource-saving strategy. Whether the male-flower proportion can serve as a reliable indicator of plant resource status requires further validation.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213415

Authors: Dong Hwan Lee Jun Hyuk Jang Ji Ah Kim

Dendropanax trifidus is an evergreen broad-leaved tree valued for its bioactive compounds, particularly chlorogenic acid (CGA) and rutin. This study investigated the relationships among growth characteristics, major compound contents, and environmental conditions in D. trifidus leaves collected from 17 sites (14 cultivated sites and three natural habitat) in southern Korea and Jeju Island. A total of 67 individual trees were sampled, and growth traits, CGA and rutin contents, soil physicochemical properties, and meteorological variables were evaluated. Pearson correlation analysis and principal component analysis (PCA) were performed using site-level mean values (n = 17) to account for the hierarchical sampling structure. Rutin content generally exceeded CGA content, with combined compound contents ranging from 0.27 to 24.17 mg/g DW across the 17 collection sites. In contrast, the three natural populations at elevations of 308–535 m exhibited relatively higher CGA than rutin contents. PCA revealed contrasting multivariate patterns among major compound contents, growth characteristics, and environmental variables, with the first two principal components explaining 51.43% of the total variance. Following false discovery rate (FDR) correction, tree height and number of lobes were positively correlated with altitude, while the dry weight of 10 leaves was positively correlated with soil available phosphorus. However, no significant associations between major compound contents and growth or environmental variables were identified after FDR correction. These findings provide preliminary insights into variation in the growth and phytochemical characteristics of D. trifidus across different environments and may inform future investigations aimed at identifying suitable cultivation conditions for targeted compound production. Further studies involving more sampling sites and controlled environmental conditions are needed to validate these relationships.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213417

Authors: Gang Chen Jianting Feng Haohua Chen Shiyan Cui Xuechi Li Rui Tang Manhong Wang Lingling Chen Shandang Shi Fei Wang Hongbin Li

Allene oxide cyclase (AOC) is an integral enzyme in jasmonic acid (JA) biosynthesis and a key regulator of plant stress responses. However, the regulatory mechanisms and enzymatic activities of cotton AOC under stress responses remain poorly understood. In our research, using BLASTP and conserved domain validation, we identified 68 AOC gene members across 10 Gossypium species. Phylogenetic, gene-structure, and syntenic analyses showed high evolutionary conservation of AOC genes, accompanied by lineage-specific expansion. Promoter sequence analysis indicated that the AOCs contained abundant cis-elements associated with hormone signaling, abiotic-stress response, and transcription factor (TF) regulation. Expression profiling revealed tissue-specific and stress-responsive expression patterns among GhAOC genes, with GhAOC3A showing the most pronounced upregulation under chilling stress. GhAOC3A was identified as a chloroplast-localized protein based on the subcellular localization assay. GhAOC3A overexpression enhanced cotton chilling tolerance with elevated JA accumulation, stronger antioxidant defense, stable osmotic homeostasis, and retained chlorophyll content, and VIGS results provided supportive evidence for the function of GhAOC3A in chilling tolerance. Among the predicted TFs that could regulate the expression of GhAOC3A, GhWRKY65 was further identified and confirmed to bind to the W-box element and activate GhAOC3A transcription. Overexpression of GhWRKY65 significantly enhanced cotton chilling tolerance, as well as elevated GhAOC3A expression and increased JA accumulation. Conversely, silencing GhWRKY65 compromised cotton chilling tolerance. Collectively, these findings suggest that the GhWRKY65-GhAOC3A regulatory module positively modulates cotton chilling tolerance and JA levels. Our study provides insights into the transcriptional network associated with plant stress response and offers effective candidates for breeding chilling-tolerant cotton materials.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213416

Authors: Khaled Al-Jabri Yaseen Al-Mulla Mohammed Al Sulaimani Hameed Sulaiman Ahmed Tabook Ahmed Al-Abri

Phragmites australis (common reed) delivers key ecosystem services, including carbon sequestration, yet its carbon storage potential in hyper-arid environments remains insufficiently quantified. This study combines destructive sampling, laboratory carbon analysis, and satellite-derived vegetation indices to establish a rigorously validated baseline for aboveground biomass (AGB) and carbon stocks in a constructed wetland in Oman (n = 12 plots). Using leave-one-out cross-validation, this study tested whether biomass-prediction approaches commonly applied in wetland carbon research, namely height-based allometric equations and satellite vegetation indices, generalize beyond the data used to build them. The results show that the height-based equations achieve a near-perfect statistical fit by mathematical construction rather than genuine predictive validity, and that satellite vegetation indices require a larger, independent sample than used here to achieve validated accuracy; together, these findings establish a concrete, quantitative benchmark for sampling design and model validation in data-limited hyper-arid systems. The corrected destructive-sampling dataset places carbon stock at this site between 0.19 and 1.95 kg/m2, depending on the measurement method used. Together, these results support P. australis-dominated constructed wetlands as measurable, nature-based carbon reservoirs and chart a clear, evidence-based path toward reliable, remote sensing-based carbon monitoring across the Gulf Cooperation Council region and other water-stressed environments.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213414

Authors: Xingchen Liu Mingzhu Zhao Yiyang Li Qingyuan He Xue Yang Dagang Wang Yanlong Liu Chenxi Fei Xianlian Chen Yingjie Shu

Seed weight represents a critical yield-associated quantitative trait in soybean (Glycine max) and is governed by polygenic regulatory networks. Although several seed-weight-related genes have been functionally characterized, the interactome of the major seed-weight determining gene SW16.1 remains largely unexplored. In this study, we constructed a yeast two-hybrid (Y2H) cDNA library using pooled total RNA isolated from developing seeds of the soybean cultivar Nannong 1138-2 covering five key seed-development stages. Using GmSW16.1 (cultivated Nannong 1138-2 allelic) as bait, Y2H screening was performed. Following multi-round screening, Sanger sequencing, and filtering based on functional annotation, 11 candidate interactors assigned to nine distinct functional categories were recovered. Interactions were further verified through point-to-point Y2H assays, quantitative α-galactosidase (α-Gal) activity measurements, and bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC). We confirmed that metallothionein-like protein 4A-related Glyma.18G157800 (GmMT4) and the papain-like cysteine protease Glyma.08G116300 physically interact with both GmSW16.1 and GsSW16.1 (wild soybean N24852). A two-glutamine polymorphism within the PolyQ (polyglutamine) repeat tract of these two allelic proteins did not abolish protein–protein interactions, yet significantly altered their interaction strength toward the above-mentioned partners. Glyma.08G116300 displayed preferential transcript accumulation during soybean seed development, and its transcript abundance differed dynamically between the chromosome segment substitution line CSSL3068 and its cultivated parent Nannong 1138-2 across developmental stages. Heterologous overexpression of this gene in Arabidopsis thaliana significantly increased the 1000-seed weight (by 12–15%) and increased seed length and width. This study delivers a seed-development-specific Y2H library resource for soybean research. We put forward a testable working hypothesis describing a dual-layer regulatory module integrating transcriptional control and direct protein–protein interaction for the GmSW16.1-GmMT4 regulatory node. These findings advance our mechanistic understanding of how natural PolyQ allelic variation shapes soybean seed-weight performance and provides candidate gene materials for soybean molecular design breeding.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213413

Authors: Yingjie Zhao Jingtao Qu Hongru Liu Zihao Zhang Wei Gu Diansi Yu Hui Wang Kai Li Felix San Vicente Garcia Hongjian Zheng Yuan Guan

Postharvest sucrose depletion severely limits the organoleptic quality and commercial value of sweet corn during ambient storage. To characterize the temporal transcriptional responses associated with cultivar-dependent sugar loss, ears of two supersweet corn hybrids, ‘Shenketian 811’ (SKT) and ‘Overland’ (AFL), were stored under monitored ambient conditions (24–26 °C) for 7 days. Kernel sugars, total soluble solids, whole-ear respiration rates, and transcriptomic profiles were assessed at five time points. Sucrose concentration declined from 77.9 to 30.9 μg mg−1 fresh weight in SKT and from 80.3 to 20.3 μg mg−1 fresh weight in AFL. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA), followed by within-cultivar module–trait analysis, identified one module positively and one negatively associated with sucrose concentration in both cultivars. Subsequent gene-level correlation analysis of the 1071 genes in these modules identified 571 non-redundant sucrose-associated genes, which were enriched in carbon metabolism, glycolysis/gluconeogenesis, the citrate cycle, and starch and sucrose metabolism. Pairwise differential-expression analysis further identified 194 genes showing recurrent storage-responsive or cultivar-dependent expression, of which five genes involved in sucrose cleavage or sucrose–starch interconversion were prioritized. Notably, the cell-wall invertase gene ZmINVCW1 exhibited a sustained AFL-biased expression pattern, which was validated by RT-qPCR, while total cell wall invertase activity was also significantly higher in AFL at multiple sampling points. This time-resolved analysis characterizes recurrent transcriptional responses associated with cultivar-dependent sucrose loss and provides a focused framework for further functional studies of postharvest sucrose retention.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213412

Authors: Muhammad Rehman Muhammad Sulaman Saeed Xingming Fan Abdul Salam Raheel Munir Muhammad Umair Yasin Ali Raza Khan Sajid Muhammad Bahar Ali Imran Ali Jamshaid Khan Yinbo Gan

There were errors in the original publication [...]

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213411

Authors: László Horváth Tünde Alapi Tímea Süli-Zakar Zoltán Bozóki Anna Szabó

Seasonal changes in leaf chemistry may help characterize ammonia exchange potential in fertilized crops. We investigated leaf-extract ammonium, pH, and emission potential (Γextract = [NH4+]/[H+]) alongside leaf area index (LAI) in winter oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) near Kartal, Hungary, in 2026. Twenty-eight pooled extracts were analyzed between February and May. Two applications of liquid urea–ammonium nitrate fertilizer each supplied approximately 70 kg N ha−1. Unsmoothed Γextract reached 43,087 after the February application and a smaller local maximum of 17,364 after the March application. Corresponding five-point moving-average maxima were 24,409 and 8533. LAI near the applications increased from 1.10 to 2.14. Semi-quantitative NH3 flux estimates combined measured concentration gradients with a mean diurnal turbulent diffusion coefficient profile obtained at the same site in 2025. Net emission increased following both applications, with estimated cumulative net emission of 13.6 kg N ha−1 between 18 February and 29 June. These estimates represent combined soil–vegetation exchange. Extract apoplastic purity was not independently validated, and the absence of an unfertilized control and replicated treatments precludes causal attribution. The observations motivate testing fertilizer timing relative to canopy development but do not demonstrate management efficacy.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213410

Authors: Qihuan Deng Chao Yang Haoning He Mingyan Wang Xiaochun Wang Qiying Wang Xuefeng Wang Yaobin Lv Xinyuan Wu Jun He Changyong Zhou

The citrus genetic transformation system is essential for genetic improvement and functional studies of the crop. Agrobacterium rhizogenes-mediated transformation in citrus has enabled efficient and rapid generation of transformed root tissues compared to conventional A. tumefaciens-mediated transformation. However, suitable explants and transformation conditions in this system still require further optimization to obtain ample clean transformed roots, which is a prerequisite for subsequent shoot regeneration when stable transgenic plants are desired. In this study, we established an integrated cotyledon-derived, A. rhizogenes-mediated hairy root transformation and plant regeneration system for ‘Carrizo’ citrange. Both cotyledon and epicotyl explants yielded transformed hairy roots; however, cotyledon explants exhibited higher hairy root induction and hairy root transformation efficiency under their respective optimized conditions. A 3 h AS pre-induction time, a 30 min infection time, and a 2,4-D concentration of 0.1 mg/L were identified as the optimal conditions for cotyledon transformation, and the hairy root induction rate, GFP-positive hairy root frequency, and hairy root transformation efficiency reached an average value of 69.22 ± 3.13%, 74.21 ± 1.08%, and 51.36 ± 1.99%, respectively. Transformed hairy roots were further regenerated into shoots via a callus-mediated regeneration pathway, followed by micrografting and subsequent grafting to recover intact plants. Finally, regenerated plants were successfully obtained and molecularly validated. This study reports a highly efficient A. rhizogenes-mediated transformation and regeneration system for citrus.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213409

Authors: Zixin Zhang Pengxiang Bao Xinyue Zhang Tingting Gao Yuhang Zhang Zhiqiang Wu Meiyi Liu Zhenyuan Zang Heng Pan Liangyu Jiang Renhai Jiao Xin Qi

Drought and salinity severely limit maize (Zea mays L.) production worldwide. Calcium (Ca2+) signaling is central to plant stress responses, but the functions of many calcium sensors, including calmodulin-like proteins (CMLs), remain poorly understood in maize. Here, we characterized ZmCML36 as a positive regulator of drought and salt stress tolerance. Transcriptional analysis showed that ZmCML36 was strongly induced by drought and salt treatments. Overexpression of ZmCML36 in Arabidopsis and maize enhanced stress tolerance, as indicated by higher germination rates, longer roots, increased superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, and reduced malondialdehyde (MDA) content. Conversely, an EMS-derived ZmCML36 mutant exhibited greater stress sensitivity. Transient expression analysis showed ZmCML36-GFP fluorescence at the cell periphery and nuclear region. An in vitro mobility-shift assay supported the Ca2+-binding capacity of ZmCML36. A yeast two-hybrid screen, followed by luciferase complementation imaging in Nicotiana benthamiana, identified an interaction between ZmCML36 and Zm00001eb395720, a putative regulatory β subunit of the maize SnRK1 complex. These findings suggest a potential connection between Ca2+ signaling and SnRK1-associated energy regulation during abiotic stress responses and identify ZmCML36 as a candidate gene for improving abiotic stress tolerance in maize.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213408

Authors: Peilong Li Jing Wang Peihao Peng Weiyi Zhu Hanyi Zhang Juan Wang

Climate change may alter mountain bamboo distributions and giant panda food resources. We modeled potential habitat suitability for Bashania faberi, Yushania brevipaniculata, and Chimonobambusa szechuanensis in a defined Qionglai Mountains study area in Sichuan, China, using MaxEnt, ten bootstrap replicates, and three global climate models (GCMs) for the 2050s and 2070s under SSP1-2.6 and SSP5-8.5. We tested sensitivity to predictors, thresholds, spatial grain, connectivity, and future climate products. High omission in some spatial folds and 15 records make B. faberi projections exploratory and its patch metrics indicative. At species-specific 10th-percentile (10P) thresholds, the nine-variable ensemble projected gains for B. faberi and Y. brevipaniculata only under SSP5-8.5 in the 2070s; the five-variable configuration and fixed thresholds reversed both. Each expansion was supported by one GCM, while two projected contraction. Chimonobambusa szechuanensis contracted under the nine-variable and elevation-containing configurations but increased in the temperature-inclusive diagnostic at 10P. The combined suitable-area proportion fell from 34.20% currently to 21.00–31.05% in baseline future maps; mean patch area and aggregation also declined. Averaging outcomes could produce a different change direction from averaging predictions. These projections describe conditional suitability, not food supply or functional connectivity.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213407

Authors: Zhao Feng Jieyi Sun Aman Wang Pei Xi Ruihua Lv Gang Zhang

β-Amylases (BAMs) hydrolyze starch and contribute to abiotic stress acclimation, with AtBAM3 mediating most transitory starch degradation in Arabidopsis; however, legume BAM family evolution and the effect of whole-genome duplications remain unexplored. We identified 92 BAM genes across eight legume genomes and classified 111 BAM proteins (including Arabidopsis and rice references) into four groups, with subgroup II-B containing all AtBAM3 orthologs. In S. tora, StoBAM6 and StoBAM10 formed a collinear paralogous pair unlikely to derive from the Papilionoideae-specific duplication. Under 4 °C treatment, StoBAM6 was induced within 1 h and stayed elevated through 24 h, whereas StoBAM10 rose only transiently at 3 h. StoBAM6 expression correlated positively with leaf β-amylase activity (r = 0.7557, p < 0.001) and negatively with starch content (r = −0.7343, p < 0.001), whereas StoBAM10 showed no significant correlation with β-amylase activity (r = 0.7728, p = 0.75) or starch content (r = −0.0685, p = 0.77). StoCBF2 shared StoBAM6’s cold-induced expression profile; yeast one-hybrid assays showed that StoCBF2 binds a StoBAM6 promoter fragment harboring the DRE-core motif. These results indicate regulatory divergence after duplication, identify StoCBF2 as a candidate upstream regulator of StoBAM6, and provide a working model for cold-responsive starch metabolism in S. tora.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213406

Authors: Jelena S. Lazarević Miroslava B. Stanković Milan S. Nešić Niko S. Radulović Bojan K. Zlatković Gordana S. Stojanović

Essential oils from three wild populations of Nepeta cataria L. (NC1–NC3) in southern and southeastern Serbia were obtained by hydrodistillation and analyzed by GC-FID and GC-MS. trans,cis-Nepetalactone (4aα,7α,7aβ-nepetalactone; NL) was isolated from NC1, and its constitution and relative configuration were established by NMR spectroscopy and iterative full-spin analysis; its absolute configuration was not determined. Its presence across the profiles was confirmed by co-injection with the isolated and characterized pure compound. NL accounted for 91.5%, 12.9%, and 87.9% of the relative GC-FID peak area in NC1, NC2, and NC3, respectively, whereas NC2 contained larger proportions of two additional provisionally annotated nepetalactone components, D (41.0%) and E (16.4%), whose configurations remain unresolved. In exploratory in vitro experiments, both the essential oils (NC1–NC3) and the isolated NL were evaluated using a cell-free lipid peroxidation model (TBA–MDA assay) and a cytokinesis-block micronucleus (CBMN) assay on lymphocytes from four male donors. All tested samples inhibited AAPH-induced lipid peroxidation. Preliminary CBMN screenings revealed a distinct non-monotonic profile: lower concentrations (1–2 µg/mL) reduced baseline micronucleus frequency, while 4 µg/mL caused an increase. These preliminary biological observations do not establish cytoprotection or safety. The findings document marked chemical variation among the analyzed Serbian samples, pointing to a complex, dose-dependent trend that requires confirmation with independent cytotoxicity measurements and a larger donor cohort.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213405

Authors: Eleonora Nistor Alin Dobrei Alina Andreea Dragoescu-Petrica Eleonora Cataldo Gabriel Ciorica Alina Georgeta Dobrei

In sustainable viticulture, inter-row vegetation management may improve biodiversity and influence grape quality, but the relationships among vegetation, pollinators, and grape quality remain insufficiently researched. A three-year study (2023–2025) was conducted in a vineyard in western Romania to evaluate the effects of inter-row management practices, including bare soil (BS), spontaneous vegetation (SV) and a multispecies cover crop mixture (CC), on vegetation traits, pollinator groups, grape yield and quality in four cultivars (‘Merlot’, ‘Pinot Noir’, ‘Sauvignon Blanc’ and ‘ Italian Riesling’). Vegetation cover, flower density and plant species richness were recorded; pollinators were sampled using transects and classified into five groups; grape quality parameters, phenolic compounds, and anthocyanins (red cultivars) were measured at harvest time. CC consistently had the highest vegetation cover, flower density and species richness, whereas BS had the lowest values. Plant Shannon diversity was strongly positively associated with total pollinator abundance (r = 0.962, R2 = 0.925, p < 0.001; n = 108 plot-year observations), indicating that it accounted for 92.5% of the observed variation. Inter-row management explained 76.5% of the variation in pollinator community composition (PERMANOVA, R2 = 0.765, p = 0.001). Mean grape yield and berry weight were higher under BS (3.14 kg vine−1 and 1.45 g, respectively) than under SV (2.69 kg vine−1 and 1.36 g) or CC (2.29 kg vine−1 and 1.29 g; p < 0.001). Total phenolic content was higher under CC than under BS in all four cultivars, although the magnitude of the difference depended on cultivar. In the two red cultivars, mean anthocyanin content was higher under CC (751 mg L−1) than under SV (672 mg L−1) or BS (621 mg L−1). Treatment differences in vegetation characteristics varied among years, while grape quality responses also differed among cultivars. Overall, the results indicate a trade-off between yield-related traits, which were associated with BS, and phenolic and anthocyanin accumulation, which were higher under CC. Multispecies cover crops may therefore offer ecological and compositional benefits, although their use should account for potential competition with grapevines for resources.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213404

Authors: Jelena Živković Dejan Pljevljakušić Hanaa Salah Katarina Šavikin Dragana Vujanović Tatjana Ćebović

Thymus vulgaris seed oil represents an unexplored source of bioactive lipophilic compounds with potential health-promoting properties. This study aimed to characterize the fatty acid, carotenoid, and tocol composition of T. vulgaris seed oil and investigate its effects on hepatic oxidative stress parameters in a mice model of paracetamol-induced toxicity. Fatty acid analysis revealed a predominance of polyunsaturated fatty acids (79.0%), with α-linolenic acid as the major constituent (63.3%), followed by 2-hydroxy-linolenic acid (10.5%) and linoleic acid (4.9%). Among carotenoids, lutein was identified as the predominant pigment, followed by β-carotene. The oil was also characterized by a high content of vitamin E compounds, with γ-tocopherol and γ-tocotrienol representing the dominant tocols. The in vivo study included 48 NMRI Hannover mice randomly assigned to eight experimental groups (n = 6 per group; three males and three females). The mice received T. vulgaris seed oil at doses of 1, 2, or 3 mL/kg body weight orally for seven days, with or without paracetamol administration (300 mg/kg, intraperitoneally) on day 7. Liver samples were collected 24 h after paracetamol administration to assess oxidative stress parameters, including superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione reductase (GR), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), reduced glutathione (GSH), xanthine oxidase (XOD), and lipid peroxidation (LPx). Oral administration of T. vulgaris seed oil significantly improved hepatic antioxidant defence parameters in a dose-dependent manner. The highest tested dose (3 mL/kg b.wt.) produced the most pronounced effects, restoring antioxidant enzyme activities, increasing GSH content, and reducing XOD activity and lipid peroxidation toward the values observed in non-intoxicated animals. The observed biological activity may be associated with the presence of ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, carotenoids, and vitamin E compounds, which may contribute to antioxidant defence and the protection of cellular membranes against oxidative damage. These findings indicate that T. vulgaris seed oil may mitigate hepatic oxidative stress in an acute mouse model of paracetamol-induced toxicity, although further studies are needed to confirm these effects and clarify their underlying mechanisms.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213403

Authors: Mingyong Li Leilei Yang Shenhao Song Guangyou Hao

Stem growth and canopy activity are two of the key processes in trees and are associated with one another. These two processes and their relationships may be altered under climate change, yet the underlying mechanisms by which climatic factors impact them remain unclear. This study examined stem growth and canopy activity and their responses to climate using tree-ring width data from 614 increment cores and satellite-based normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) data from 17 Mongolian pine (Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica Litv.) plantation sites in northern China. Stem growth was not significantly (p > 0.05) correlated with canopy activity at both broad spatial and individual-site scales. Broadly, stem growth was primarily driven by temperature-induced water stress whereas canopy activity was constrained by growing season precipitation, causing a difference in the spatial patterns of these two processes across the Mongolian pine plantations. Locally, stem growth was more vulnerable to high-temperature-exacerbated drought stress during the growing season and more affected by pre-growing-season hydroclimatic variability than canopy activity, especially at more arid sites, which could decouple interannual correlations between the two processes. Our study reveals climate-driven decoupling between stem growth and canopy activity, complicating the estimations of overall carbon dynamics, and thereby underscores the necessity of comprehensively assessing forest dynamics and carbon sequestration.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213402

Authors: Juanjuan Chen Tingting Xiong Liangjie Li Xiangxiang Dong Shoufu Gong Qingsong Zhu Zhenfei Zhu Min Zhai Bailing Miao Gangjun Luo

For Fragaria (strawberry) species, individual chromosome identification is challenging due to the small size of chromosomes; consequently, the chromosome numbers of most cultivars remain unreported. In this study, we investigated the ploidy of 26 strawberry cultivars by counting root-tip chromosomes. Surprisingly, 25 cultivars were octoploid (2n = 8x = 56), whereas only ‘Tokun’ was aneuploid (2n = 10x − 3 = 67). To explore the breeding potential of this aneuploid, we performed reciprocal crosses between ‘Tokun’ and ‘Benihoppe’, a widely cultivated octoploid cultivar. Only the combination with ‘Benihoppe’ as female and ‘Tokun’ as male produced fertile progenies. The progenies had variable chromosome numbers of 61, 62 or 63, meaning that ‘Tokun’ produced aneuploid gametes with varying chromosome numbers ranging from 33 to 35. Some hybrids exhibited superior aroma, firmness, or soluble solids compared with their parents. Specifically, J2138 (2n = 9x − 2 = 61) was selected for its larger single-fruit weight, J2139 (2n = 9x − 2 = 61) and J2153 (2n = 9x − 2 = 61) for their white flesh, and J2151 (2n = 9x − 1 = 62) and J2156 (2n = 9x = 63) for their soluble solids content exceeding that of the higher parent, showing potential value for commercial production and breeding. Strawberry is usually propagated via stolons or through tissue culture; therefore, aneuploids obtained from 8x × aneuploid ‘Tokun’ crosses would be good sources for cultivar breeding.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213401

Authors: Sinan Kordon Erdi Ekren Emre Babur

Urban conditions may increase woody-vegetation drought stress, although management and canopy composition can modify urban–peri-urban differences. We compared spectral anomalies of persistent woody canopy in Berlin, Madrid, and Vienna using Harmonized Landsat–Sentinel-2 observations from 2013 to 2024. Seventy urban–peri-urban pairs were matched on elevation, long-term temperature, precipitation, and retained woody area. Of 26 predefined candidate recurrent-drought events, 12 met the 80% observation-support criterion. Outcomes were event medians of within-pair urban-minus-peri-urban anomalies in the two-band enhanced vegetation index (EVI2) and normalized difference moisture index (NDMI). Each index produced seven positive and five negative contrasts; medians were 0.00047 for EVI2 and 0.00065 for NDMI. Event-level models adjusted for city and current drought severity examined antecedent severity and inter-event interval. The standardized predictor coefficients ranged from −0.00225 to 0.00252 in terms of index units. All four heteroskedasticity-consistent 95% confidence intervals included zero. The same pattern emerged in pair-within-event resampling, spatial buffering, and models based on growing-season severity, with every interval crossing zero. As the primary regressions contained 12 events and five fitted terms, there were only seven residual degrees of freedom, resulting in imprecise estimates and low statistical power. Climate antecedents were identifiable for all 26 candidates, and analytical inclusion was determined by vegetation observation support. Across the retained cases, we found neither a consistent urban spectral disadvantage nor a clear relationship between the contrast and drought history. The matched design is reproducible, but the evidence it provides comes from a small sample selected based on observation availability and from dense canopies that persisted throughout the study period. Accordingly, these estimates should not be generalized to whole urban forests or interpreted as measures of physiological response, mortality, or canopy loss.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213400

Authors: Renato de T. Tonini Matheus M. Fernandes Lucas U. L. Soares Thales de O. V. Ker Aloísio F. S. Ribeiro Heitor M. Teixeira Derly J. H. da Silva

Medicinal Cannabis sativa L. cultivation is expanding in tropical regions, although agronomic reference values largely derive from temperate or controlled environments. We assessed growing degree day (GDD)-dependent biomass accumulation, partitioning, and morphometric associations in three photoperiod-sensitive S1 progenies (Purple Wreck, Doctor, and Schanti). Plants grown under a 20-h photoperiod were transferred outdoors to natural daylength. Organ dry biomass was sampled weekly from 210 plants and fitted with three-parameter log-logistic models. Under a common slope, progeny-specific half-maximum parameters did not significantly improve model fit, whereas heteroscedasticity-consistent tests identified asymptote differences for stems, leaves, and roots. The Doctor-derived progeny showed the highest harvest index, despite no significant difference in final floral biomass among progenies. The pooled model estimated half-maximal floral biomass at approximately 1946 GDD. These thresholds depend on the greenhouse-to-field transition and temperature-measurement conditions; later milestones were projected beyond the sampled period. Plant height and basal stem diameter were strongly associated with total biomass, and crown diameter with floral biomass, supporting their evaluation as non-destructive predictors; when GDD was accounted for, four descriptors increased explained floral-biomass variation by at most 0.6 percentage points. These findings provide context-dependent thermal-time references for medicinal cannabis under tropical conditions, requiring validation across environments, seasons, and genotypes.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213396

Authors: Kai Liu Kaidi Li Suya Shang Huiping Liu Yunning Pang Xuzhe Zhang Dongchen Wu Fujun Zhang Bo Li Xiujie Li

Soil salinity severely limits grapevine yield and fruit quality; however, the mechanisms underlying salt tolerance remain poorly understood. Small secreted peptides, particularly rapid alkalinization factor (RALF) peptides, are key regulators of plant responses to environmental stress. However, a systematic analysis of the RALF gene family in grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) has not been conducted. In this study, we identified 11 VvRALFs in the grapevine genome (PN_T2T) and characterized their physicochemical properties, structural features, and evolutionary relationships. Expression profiling revealed that VvRALF9 was consistently upregulated in the roots of the salt-sensitive rootstock ‘Beta’ but downregulated in the salt-tolerant rootstock ‘3309C’. Silencing VvRALF9 in the roots of grapevine rootstocks significantly enhanced their salt tolerance. Protein interaction assays, including yeast two-hybrid, split-LUC, and pull-down assays, identified VvFER2 as a potential receptor of VvRALF9. Overexpression of VvFER2 in the roots of grapevine rootstocks also improved salt tolerance. Transcriptomic analysis of VvRALF9-RNAi roots revealed significant enrichment of the plant hormone signal transduction pathway, together with extensive changes in the expression of transcription factors and genes associated with multiple hormone signaling pathways. Together, these findings suggest that the VvRALF9–VvFER2 module is involved in the regulation of grapevine salt stress responses.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213398

Authors: Meryem Youssfi Oumaima Akachoud Btissam Zoubi Siham Houssayni Anissa Lounès-Hadj Sahraoui Frédéric Laruelle Abderrazak Benkebboura Toufic Elbeaino Hafida Bouamama Ahmed Qaddoury

Thymus satureioides Coss. is an endemic Moroccan medicinal and aromatic species of high socio-economic value, is increasingly threatened by overexploitation and continued reliance on wild harvesting. Sustainable cultivation could reduce pressure on natural populations, yet its effects on essential oil (EO) composition, bioactivity, and associated microbial diversity remain poorly understood. This study compared EO yield, chemical composition, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and nematicidal activities, and soil microbial diversity (PLFA) between wild (WT) and cultivated (CT) populations. Gas chromatography–MS analysis identified 18 and 24 compounds in WT-EO and CT-EO, respectively. Thymol and endo-borneol were the major constituents in both oils, with thymol occurring at higher levels in CT-EO (31.83%) than WT-EO (24.79%), while endo-borneol accounted for 15.61% and 16.37%, respectively. WT-EO was further characterized by the exclusive presence of camphor (0.28%). Despite the higher EO yield in CT plants, WT-EO exhibited stronger biological activities. WT-EO showed significantly higher antioxidant capacity, with lower IC50 values than CT-EO in TAC (0.01 vs. 0.02 mg mL−1), DPPH (0.30 vs. 0.60 mg mL−1), and ABTS (0.03 vs. 0.37 mg mL−1) assays. WT-EO also showed stronger antimicrobial activity, with lower MIC values against E. coli (2.5 vs. 3.8 mg mL−1), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (2.5 vs. 3.8 mg mL−1), and Staphylococcus aureus (0.04 vs. 0.50 mg mL−1). At the lowest tested concentration (5 µL mL−1), WT-EO induced significantly higher nematicidal activity than CT-EO, although both oils reached nearly complete juvenile mortality and egg-hatching inhibition at higher concentrations. WT soils also supported greater microbial biomass and a distinct PLFA-based microbial profile than CT soils (9.53 vs. 3.77 µg g−1 soil). These findings support cultivation as a sustainable production strategy while highlighting the importance of conserving WT populations as reservoirs of chemical and microbial diversity.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213399

Authors: Adrián Jarne Asunción Usón Ramón Reiné

Trace mineral dynamics in mountain pastures remain poorly quantified. This study evaluates the ecological drivers of forage micronutrient profiles (Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn) across 12 Pyrenean hay meadows. Over 3 years, 212 forage samples were analysed for botanical composition, standing biomass, and mineral content. Data were evaluated using PCA, Structural Equation Modelling (SEM), and tertile abundance partitioning. Subclinical Mn (47.5 ± 39.2 mg kg−1 DM) and Zn (22.4 ± 9.3 mg kg−1 DM) deficiencies were widespread. Non-leguminous forb cover drove Zn (R2 = 0.550, p < 0.001) and Cu (R2 = 0.428, p < 0.001) enrichment, reaching a target functional threshold at 20% to 25% cover without reducing biomass yield. Conversely, grass-dominated swards increased total ash via silica rather than trace minerals. Mn dynamics responded to thermal time, whereas Fe depended largely on soil contamination. Maintaining a 20% to 25% forbs cover target offers a practical, low-cost strategy to secure trace element self-sufficiency in extensive mountain livestock systems.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213397

Authors: Reza Abdali Amir Rahimi Sina Siavash Moghadam Saeid Heydarzadeh Carmen Arena Ermenegilda Vitale Mohammad Zamanian

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Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213395

Authors: Shixiong Wu Fachang Deng Wei Zeng Juntao Liu Qijing Liu

Quantifying fine root biomass is essential for comprehending forest subsurface ecosystems and predicting changes in plant biomass allocation under heterogeneous soil nutrient conditions. However, little is known about fine root biomass, especially the quantitative analysis of species-specific fine root biomass, due to the destructive, time-consuming, and costly nature of the associated sampling methods. In this study, nested regression was used to estimate the biomass and surface area of fine roots of individual trees of the two main tree species, Pinus koraiensis and Fraxinus mandschurica, in the primary broad-leaved Korean pine forest. Additionally, the relationship between aboveground traits (leaf biomass and leaf area) and belowground traits (root biomass and surface area of fine roots) was further analyzed. The results show that the fine and total roots of both species were highly fitted to the diameter at breast height with R2 = 0.92–0.97. The root-to-shoot ratios at the single-plant level were all 0.20. Significant linear relationships existed between leaf biomass and surface area and between fine root biomass and surface area (adjusted R2 = 0.95, p < 0.001). In conclusion, the tight coupling between fine roots and leaves proposed in this study, together with the developed biomass equation, can be used to accurately estimate Pinus koraiensis and Fraxinus mandschurica biomass at the stand level in primary broad-leaved Korean pine forests.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213394

Authors: Xueqin Zhang Liying Ma Lixia Lin Ruiyun Lai Jianzhong Lin Zanhua Zhong Haibo Ouyang

Wax apple (Syzygium samarangense) is valued for its appealing color and delicious taste and has gained increasing popularity, along with significant economic value. Previous research largely focused on orchard cultivation practices, fruit development stage management, and postharvest treatments aimed at improving yield, quality, and market profitability. Study of the peel color of the wax apple has been scarce, although the substance accumulations and pigment changes in the fruit peel are unclear. In this study, the maximum variation of fruit biological traits and peel color occurred between S2 and S3. A total of 946 metabolites were identified, of which 17 key phytohormone-related metabolites may be related to the change of fruit peel color, encompassing jasmonates (JAs), cytokinins (CTKs), gibberellins (GAs), and zeatin ribosides (ZRs). Using RNA sequencing, 212 expressed genes relating to plant hormone signal transduction were identified. Among these, 18, 39, and 11 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified in S2-vs-S1, S3-vs-S2, and S4-vs-S3, respectively. Critical genes within the hormone signaling cascades—including ARF, GID1B, ARR, JAR, NCED1, and TGA—exhibited strong correlations with peel color. Furthermore, fifteen distinct expressed gene modules and six distinct compound modules were identified through weighted gene coexpression network analysis, of which the blue and green modules display a robust correlation between numerous distinctly expressed genes and phytohormone metabolites. Collectively, our findings offer novel insights into the combinatorial regulation of wax apple fruit development and peel color, serving as a valuable resource for functional genomics and providing a theoretical basis for the genetic improvement and cultivation management of the wax apple.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213393

Authors: Weiguang Yang Xiaojia Shi Ling Li Nan Wang Changyuan Wang Xiangping Liu

Salinization is a major constraint to agricultural sustainability in arid and semi-arid regions worldwide. The ameliorative effects of grass clipping mulching on alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) growth and forage quality in soda saline–alkali land in Northeast China and its regulatory mechanisms were studied. The trial used a randomized block design with four mulch treatments: no-mulch control (CK), low-density (LC, 6000 kg ha−1, or 6.0 t ha−1), medium-density (MC, 12,000 kg ha−1, or 12.0 t ha−1), and high-density (HC, 18,000 kg ha−1, or 18.0 t ha−1). Compared with CK, MC achieved the highest soil water content (18.3% vs. 14.9% in CK), the lowest bulk density (1.26 vs. 1.48 g cm−3), and the greatest porosity (52.4% vs. 44.2%); pH, electrical conductivity, total salt, and ESP decreased, while organic matter and available nutrients increased. Overwintering survival rose to 89.1% under HC (+9.3%). Net photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance, and chlorophyll content increased, and first-cut hay yield increased by 27.3% under HC (3938 vs. 3093 kg ha−1). Crude protein reached 20.42%, and relative feed value increased from 158.4 to 167.1. Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) showed that mulching acted mainly through soil nutrient enrichment, thereby enhancing plant physiology and ultimately forage yield and quality. Grass clipping mulching is a cost-effective strategy for saline–alkali soil remediation and sustainable alfalfa production.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213391

Authors: Lizett V. Bonifaz Delgado Marilena Antunes Ricardo Alberto Valdés Daniel Guajardo Flores

Oenothera rosea and Taxodium mucronatum are traditionally used in the Americas for wound healing; however, their bioactive properties remain insufficiently standardized and scientifically validated. Therefore, this study aimed to establish extraction conditions that maximize the antioxidant potential of O. rosea and T. mucronatum extracts, characterize their phenolic profiles, and evaluate their biological effects in vitro. Extraction temperature, solvent, and time were evaluated using a full factorial design, with total phenolic content and radical scavenging capacity (DPPH and ABTS) as response variables. Extracts’ phenolic profiles were characterized by UHPLC-PDA-Orbitrap-MS/MS. Nitric oxide production was assessed in RAW 264.7 macrophages by quantifying nitrite using the Griess assay. Fibroblast migration was evaluated under standard- and high-glucose conditions as an in vitro wound-healing model. Extracts obtained with 70% ethanol at 60 °C for 24 h exhibited the highest overall antioxidant activity. O. rosea was rich in phenolic acids and flavonoids, whereas T. mucronatum predominantly contained bioflavonoids and diterpenes. T. mucronatum significantly reduced nitric oxide production, whereas O. rosea showed no significant difference from the control. Under standard-glucose conditions, both extracts significantly enhanced fibroblast migration compared with the negative control. However, under high-glucose conditions, only the 50:50 mixture induced partial wound closure. These findings support the potential of both species as sources of bioactive compounds for wound management.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213392

Authors: Victoria Parera María Verónica Pérez Chaca Camila V. Gatica Aguilar Carlos A. Parera Gabriela E. Feresin

Heavy metal (HM) pollution is a major threat to terrestrial ecosystems. Addressing it requires identifying native plant species that tolerate HMs while maintaining physiological function. This study evaluated the physiological responses, antioxidant defense mechanisms, and phytoremediation potential of the high-Andean species Adesmia subterranea Clos under cadmium (Cd 3, 4.5, and 6 mg L−1) and mercury (Hg 0.8, 1.2, and 1.6 mg L−1) in a semi-hydroponic system. Survival, growth performance, metal accumulation, bioconcentration factor (BCF), translocation factor (TF), oxidative stress biomarkers such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and antioxidant responses including catalase (CAT), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), and glutathione (GSH) were assessed. Exposure to Cd reduced survival and decreased biomass in a concentration-dependent manner, whereas Hg did not affect survival and reduced biomass only at 0.8 mg L−1. Both metals were efficiently taken up (BCF > 1); Cd was consistently retained in roots (TF < 1), while Hg translocation increased with dose (TF up to 0.79 at 1.6 mg L−1). Cd and Hg exposure induced oxidative stress, evidenced by increased H2O2 accumulation and lipid peroxidation, which was accompanied by activation of antioxidant defenses. The APX activity and GSH levels increased significantly, while CAT showed a metal-specific response. These results indicate coordinated regulation of enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant pathways to maintain redox homeostasis under HM stress. Overall, these results provide a preliminary indication of the potential of A. subterranea for phytostabilization in metal-contaminated Andean ecosystems.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213389

Authors: Farrukh Abdirasulov Zhalov Kholmurod Marko S. Sabovljević

The present checklist documents 241 moss taxa recorded from Uzbekistan, including 234 species, one subspecies, five varieties, and one form. Among them, 43 additional taxa were reported for the country. The checklist is based on a comprehensive critical revision of the published literature, herbarium collections, and recent taxonomic treatments. Historical records and synonymy were carefully re-evaluated in accordance with current international nomenclatural standards and modern bryological classifications. Out of 234 species, 78 have not been recorded for more than two decades. This updated synthesis provides a reliable and standardized account of the moss flora of Uzbekistan, correcting previous taxonomic inconsistencies and integrating recent floristic and distributional data. The results significantly enhance the understanding of bryophyte diversity in Central Asia and establish a solid baseline for future taxonomic, ecological, biogeographical, and conservation studies in the region.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213390

Authors: Carolain Badaracco Sergio Donoso Karen Peña-Rojas Claudia Espinoza Miguel Quintanilla Rodrigo Gangas Aileen González

Mediterranean ecosystems in the central region of Chile face seasonal water limitations and increasing aridity. The belowground structure of their woody species remains poorly known. We characterised root system architecture and biomass allocation in 12 adult trees from a single site of the endemic and Vulnerable Porlieria chilensis. These trees had to be removed for the expansion of a tailings dam. Each tree was excavated, and its structural roots (≥0.5 cm) were traced to estimate maximum root length, cumulative root length and potential root exploration area (REA). The aboveground (AB), belowground (BB) and total biomass were determined, and the BB/AB ratio was calculated. The root collar diameter (RCD) showed a positive correlation with the estimated maximum root length (Spearman’s ρ = 0.650), the cumulative root length (ρ = 0.804) and REA (ρ = 0.811), and BB with the cumulative root length (ρ = 0.846) and REA (ρ = 0.797). In contrast, BB/AB decreased with RCD (ρ = −0.713; power-model exponent = −0.080): larger trees had more root biomass in absolute terms but proportionally less relative to aboveground biomass. As roots with a diameter less than 0.5 cm were not completely recovered, BB and BB/AB are conservative estimates. These relationships provide preliminary reference values for non-destructive field assessments, root-zone protection and ex situ planting of this species.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213383

Authors: Panrui Chen Zhengyao Lin Mingjian Zhou Jie Shen Yinggao Liu Fuyuan Zhu Yanjie Xie

Carotenoids are plastid-localized isoprenoid metabolites essential for photosynthesis, photoprotection, and plant development. Their metabolism also provides precursors for abscisic acid (ABA), strigolactones (SLs), and diverse apocarotenoids involved in environmental adaptation. Both abiotic and biotic stresses can alter carotenoid biosynthesis, composition, and turnover, although the underlying regulatory mechanisms and physiological consequences vary with stress type. This review examines how carotenoid pathway regulation influences metabolite allocation and stress-adaptive functions, with particular emphasis on the control of precursor supply and metabolic branch points. We discuss the contributions of carotenoid metabolism to ABA-mediated stress responses, photoprotection and redox homeostasis, and signaling by carotenoid-derived metabolites, including zaxinone, β-ionone, β-cyclocitral, and SLs. The distinct and overlapping roles of these processes in abiotic stress adaptation and biotic defense are evaluated, while senescence is considered as a developmental process associated with changes in carotenoid turnover and downstream signaling. We further examine how functional specialization among pathway genes, transcriptional and chromatin regulation, RNA-mediated control, protein stability, and enzyme interactions influence pathway activity. Metabolite feedback and competition for shared precursors, particularly at the methylerythritol 4-phosphate (MEP) and geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGPP) nodes, provide additional mechanisms for regulating metabolic branch allocation. The reversible interconversion between ABA and ABA glucose ester (ABA-GE) is also discussed as a mechanism of ABA homeostasis distinct from de novo carotenoid-dependent biosynthesis. Importantly, the extent to which changes in metabolite abundance reflect actual flux redistribution remains insufficiently resolved. Future research should therefore prioritize quantitative flux analysis, the mechanisms underlying tissue- and stress-specific regulation, the perception of carotenoid-derived signals, and strategies to improve stress resilience while minimizing growth and yield penalties.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213388

Authors: Viktoriya V. Medvedeva Nikita K. Kostin Kirill M. Vorobev Rashit I. Tarakanov Peter V. Evseev Anna A. Vasilyeva Olga Yu. Slovareva Svetlana I. Chebanenko Olga O. Beloshapkina Fevzi S.-U. Dzhalilov

Species of the genus Epicoccum are widespread plant-associated fungi; however, their phytopathological significance in soybean remains insufficiently studied. In the present study, 15 Epicoccum isolates obtained in 2024–2026 from symptomatic soybean leaves and seeds in four regions of Russia were characterized using multilocus phylogenetic analysis, whole-genome sequencing, controlled inoculation assays, assessment of extracellular enzymatic activity, and fungicide sensitivity testing. Nine isolates were identified as E. tobaicum, five as E. mezzettii, and one as E. oryzae. The five sequenced genomes ranged from 32.84 to 34.62 Mb in size, with BUSCO completeness of 97.1–98.9%. In the mycelial-plug assay, performed without needle puncturing of the leaf blade, the largest mean necrotic lesion diameter was 12.75 ± 5.03 mm; in a separate wound-assisted assay, in which an E. tobaicum conidial suspension was applied to standardized needle wounds, the highest mean proportion of necrotic leaflet area was 26.17 ± 8.93% at 7 days after inoculation. Following artificial seed inoculation with E. tobaicum isolate 152H, no normal seedlings developed, and visible signs of fungal colonization were recorded on 100% of the seeds, indicating substantial adverse effects on seedling development under the experimental conditions. For 14 of the 15 isolates, 50% inhibition of mycelial growth by azoxystrobin was not reached at the highest tested concentration (EC50 > 1000 µg/mL), indicating low sensitivity under the test conditions, whereas EC50 values ranged from 0.0448 to 0.3837 µg/mL for boscalid, from 0.0760 to 0.2736 µg/mL for fludioxonil, and from 3.735 to 49.542 µg/mL for tebuconazole. These findings demonstrate substantial variation in fungicide sensitivity among the tested isolates, although further comparative studies are required to establish resistance status. To our knowledge, this study reports the first molecularly confirmed detection of E. tobaicum, E. mezzettii, and E. oryzae associated with soybean in Russia, as well as the first experimental evidence of the pathogenic potential of E. tobaicum toward soybean leaves in the country under controlled inoculation conditions. Because the conidial assay was performed on wounded leaflets, it does not establish the ability of these isolates to infect intact leaves under natural conditions.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213387

Authors: Dario Salemi Rosi De Luca Vincenzo Ilardi Anna Geraci Rosario Schicchi Angelo Troia

The alien flora of rice fields and associated aquatic habitats remains poorly documented. Surveys conducted in 2024–2025 in eastern Piedmont (Northern Italy) recorded several alien macrophytes. Here, we focus on two taxa: Najas chinensis N. Z. Wang (Magnoliophyta, Hydrocharitaceae) and Chara fibrosa C. Agardh ex Bruzelius s.l. (Charophyta, Characeae). In Italy, N. chinensis had previously been known from a single herbarium specimen collected in 2004 and recognised only years later through molecular analyses. We found it at more than half of the surveyed sites, suggesting that its apparent rarity may reflect limited floristic exploration rather than a genuinely restricted distribution. We also provide an identification key to the Italian species of Najas. C. fibrosa, a tropical–subtropical species historically associated with European rice fields and only sporadically recorded in Italy since the nineteenth century, is reported here for the first time from Piedmont, confirming its occurrence in the western Po Plain. Our findings show that even limited floristic surveys can reveal overlooked alien aquatic plants and improve knowledge of their distribution, thus highlighting the need to strengthen field monitoring activities.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213385

Authors: Lea Broschewitz Henryk Flachowsky Erik Schulte Stefanie Reim Monika Höfer

Pears (Pyrus spp.) are an important fruit crop worldwide. In Germany, the German Fruit Genebank manages a large collection of pear cultivars. In this work, we examined 421 pear cultivars of the German Fruit Genebank with regard to cultivar authenticity. Pyrus UNiQue genotype codes (PUNQs) were used for international harmonization of the genotype data. More than 60% of the cultivars have accessions which are true-to-type or true-to-type with reservation. We showed that a subset of SSR markers is suitable to distinguish all cultivars within the given dataset. An extensive parentage analysis unravelled 19 candidate offspring-parent trios. An investigation of the genetic structure revealed weak correlation between genetic structure and cultivar origin. In a tree based on genetic relationships, the conclusions of the previous two analysis were combined. We could observe sub-branches based on cultivar origin country and in relation to specific breeding programmes and parentage. Overall, we presented the value of the German Fruit Genebank’s pear collection and suitable analyses revealed new insights in the genetic structure and parentage.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213386

Authors: Carolina Kalinhoff Alicia Cáceres Rosa Urich Victor Romero

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) can enhance plant establishment in degraded drylands, but inoculation outcomes may depend on inoculum identity and recipient soil conditions. We evaluated the response of Piscidia carthagenensis to three native AMF consortia from contrasting successional stages of a xerophytic shrubland and to a non-native Acaulospora lacunosa inoculum. Plants were grown in soils representing reference shrubland, early-seral, and late-seral stages. An uninoculated treatment was included as a control. After 112 days, plant growth, nodulation, and AM root colonization were assessed. The magnitude and pattern of plant responses to inoculation varied among the three recipient soils. Native consortia generally produced more consistent positive effects on growth and nodulation than the non-native inoculum, particularly in seral soils. Total root colonization exceeded 90% in inoculated plants grown in early- and late-seral soils, yet plant responses still differed among inocula. Intraradical structures differentiated among inocula more clearly than total root colonization. Home inoculations showed trait-specific advantages over Away inoculations and more consistently outperformed the tested non-native inoculum. These findings suggest that the native AMF consortia evaluated here are promising candidate inocula for the restoration of degraded dryland ecosystems.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213384

Authors: Guey-Horng Wang Jong-Tar Kuo Yi-Hsiang Lee Ying-Chien Chung

Lycoris radiata is a medicinal and ornamental plant rich in Amaryllidaceae alkaloids and polyphenols. However, most studies have focused solely on its bulb extracts, neglecting the potential benefits of its leaves and roots. Due to the complex structures of its alkaloids and the difficulty of chemical synthesis, effective extraction methods are essential. This study evaluated the biological activities of different L. radiata tissues using a sequential experimental approach. Initially, leaves, bulbs, and roots were extracted via maceration, ultrasonic-assisted extraction (UAE), and vacuum ultrasonic-assisted extraction (VUAE) to compare their antioxidant properties (DPPH, ABTS, total phenolics, and total flavonoids). Based on superior yield and antioxidant capacity, VUAE was selected to prepare extracts from the three plant parts for comparative evaluations of cytotoxicity, antimicrobial activity, anti-inflammatory activity, and specific enzymatic inhibitions (tyrosinase, MMP-1, elastase, collagenase, and hyaluronidase). Furthermore, the leaf extract obtained via VUAE—which demonstrated prominent multifunctional efficacy—was exclusively analyzed for its phytochemical profile (via HPLC-UV/ESI-MS/MS), molecular docking binding affinities, in vitro wound healing capacity, and transdermal permeation efficiency. VUAE achieved the highest extraction yields across all tissues. VUAE-derived leaf extracts exhibited the strongest ABTS radical scavenging activity, notable skin-whitening effects, significant anti-inflammatory properties, and effective wound healing. Both root and leaf VUAE extracts showed potent anti-aging activity by inhibiting key skin-degrading enzymes, whereas bulb extracts demonstrated the most pronounced antimicrobial activity. All extracts maintained cell viability above 70%, and leaf extracts promoted wound healing in HaCaT and CCD966SK cells. Chemical profiling identified 31 alkaloids and 18 polyphenols in the VUAE leaf extracts, with lycorine, galanthamine, rutin, quercetin, and cinnamic acid as key components contributing to the observed multifunctional effects. In summary, VUAE-derived L. radiata extracts (particularly those from leaves) exhibit broad bioactivities, safety, and high extractability, highlighting their strong potential for applications in cosmetics, dermatology, and agricultural biotechnology.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213380

Authors: Jiyou Zhu Hongyuan Li

We examined recorded reproductive traits and paired temperature differences for 200 Platanus × acerifolia street trees at 50 Shanghai sites. The site-level urbanization index defined 17 low-, 16 medium- and 17 high-urbanization sites. Fruit-ball load was analysed as a whole-number count using negative-binomial regression with site-clustered inference. A one-standard-deviation increase in diameter at breast height was associated with a higher fruit-ball count (incidence-rate ratio 1.419, 95% CI 1.385–1.454), whereas the site urbanization index (p = 0.228) and pruning-event frequency (p = 0.576) were not independently associated with counts. In 200 paired temperature records, the open-minus-under-canopy difference averaged 5.49 ± 3.73 °C; a 0–8 °C sensitivity subset contained 143 observations. The shade-cover–temperature correlation was −0.070 in the full sample and −0.021 in the restricted subset, providing no evidence of a consistent positive relationship. A descriptive four-quadrant display combines directly counted fruit balls with the restricted temperature differences. Calculated fruit-hair mass is distinguished from measured airborne concentration or human exposure. These results inform interpretation of tree-level reproductive load while placing explicit limits on the use of single-occasion thermal observations for management.

Plants doi: 10.3390/plants15213382

Authors: Pyae Pyae Win Yong In Kuk

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) are crucial cereal crops worldwide, facing increasing challenges from abiotic stresses such as heat, cold, drought, salinity, and waterlogging. Biostimulants present a promising strategy to enhance stress tolerance by influencing interconnected physiological, biochemical, and molecular mechanisms. This review synthesizes evidence on biostimulant-mediated stress tolerance in these cereals using five functional categories: phytohormones and signaling molecules; osmoprotectants and antioxidants; silicon, mineral nutrients, and nanoparticles; humic substances, seaweed, and plant extracts; and beneficial microorganisms. Across stress conditions, biostimulants generally improved photosynthetic performance, redox homeostasis, osmotic and ionic balance, and membrane stability. Molecular evidence further implicates antioxidant defense, hormone signaling, ion transport, aquaporin, and cold-responsive pathways, although mechanistic validation remains limited. Salicylic acid, melatonin, and silicon were among the most supported agents, whereas evidence for waterlogging and microbial biostimulants was comparatively scarce. Treatment efficacy varied with genotype, developmental stage, dose, and stress intensity and duration. Overall, biostimulants offer promising opportunities to improve stress tolerance and climate resilience in wheat and barley; however, multi-location field trials and omics-based investigations are needed to validate their effectiveness and elucidate underlying mechanisms for sustainable, stress-resilient crop production.