Search Results (133)

In recent years, the European Union has played a key role in global efforts to combat climate change and the energy transition, focusing on creating fiscal, legal and regulatory policies and instruments capable of supporting the decarbonization process and ensuring a sustainable energy future. Environmental taxation has been considered not only as an essential tool to discourage pollution but also to stimulate cleaner energy production, the integration of renewable sources and energy efficiency. Our research analyses the impact of environmental tax revenues on CO₂ across 27 EU member states from 2012 to 2023. A mixed-method research approach is used, combining policy and strategy analysis, bibliometric mapping and econometric data analysis using OLS, as well as fixed and random effects models that are selected based on the Hausman test. The methodological mix approach provides empirical evidence on how fiscal instruments can simultaneously support environmental sustainability and energy resilience. The results show that environmental taxes are associated with greenhouse gas emission reductions and an increase in the share of renewable energy, especially when integrated into a coherent national policy framework. The policy analysis highlights the role of the Climate Action Budgetary Mechanism (CABM) and the Effort Sharing Regulation (ESR), underlining their importance for the European Union’s energy strategy. The bibliometric results indicate the existence of thematic clusters focused on carbon pricing, renewable energies and international comparisons, particularly with China. Finally, this study suggests that the maximum efficiency of environmental taxes is achieved when the revenues generated are reinvested in green infrastructure, innovation and sustainable jobs. Furthermore, policies should be adapted to the specificities of each Member State to ensure a fair and sustainable energy transition at the EU level. Full article

This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the technological, environmental, economic, regulatory, and social dimensions shaping the development and operation of agricultural biogas plants. The paper adopts a primarily European perspective, reflecting the comparatively high share of agricultural inputs in anaerobic digestion (AD) across EU Member States, while drawing selective comparisons with global contexts to indicate where socio-geographical conditions may lead to different outcomes. It outlines core principles of the AD process and recent innovations—such as enzyme supplementation, microbial carriers, and multistage digestion systems—that enhance process efficiency and cost-effectiveness. The study emphasises substrate optimisation involving both crop- and livestock-derived materials, together with the critical management of water resources and digestate within a circular-economy framework to promote sustainability and minimise environmental risks. Economic viability, regulatory frameworks, and social dynamics are examined as key factors underpinning successful biogas implementation. The paper synthesises evidence on cost–benefit performance, investment drivers, regulatory challenges, and support mechanisms, alongside the importance of community engagement and participatory governance to mitigate land-use conflicts and ensure equitable rural development. Finally, it addresses persistent technical, institutional, environmental, and social barriers that constrain biogas deployment, underscoring the need for integrated solutions that combine technological advances with policy support and stakeholder cooperation. This analysis offers practical insights for advancing sustainable biogas use in agriculture, balancing energy production with environmental stewardship, food security, and rural equity. The review is based on literature identified in Scopus and Web of Science for 2007 to 2025 using predefined keyword sets and supplemented by EU policy and guidance documents and backward- and forward-citation searches. Full article

This article develops an interdisciplinary framework that applies topological and graph-theoretical methods to public procurement markets and digital platform economies. Conceptualizing legal–economic interactions as dynamic networks of nodes and edges, we show how structural properties—centrality, clustering, connectivity, and boundary formation—shape contestability, resilience, and compliance. Using EU-relevant contexts (public procurement directives and the Digital Markets Act), we formalize network representations for buyers, suppliers, platforms, and regulators; define operational indicators; and illustrate an empirical, value-weighted buyer → supplier network to reveal a sparse but highly modular architecture with a high-value backbone. We then map these structural signatures to concrete legal levers (lotting and framework design, modification scrutiny, interoperability and data-access duties) and propose dashboard-style diagnostics for proactive oversight. The findings demonstrate how topological modelling complements doctrinal analysis by making hidden architectures visible and by linking measurable structure to regulatory outcomes. We conclude with implications for evidence-informed regulatory design and a research agenda integrating graph analytics, comparative evaluation across jurisdictions, and machine-learning-assisted anomaly detection. Full article

The United Nations has set a global vision towards emissions reduction and green growth through the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Towards the realisation of SDGS 7, 9, and 13, we focus on green hydrogen production as a potential pathway to achievement. Green hydrogen, produced via water electrolysis powered by renewable energy sources, represents a pivotal solution towards climate change mitigation. Energy access in West Africa remains a challenge, and dependency on fossil fuels persists. So, green hydrogen offers an opportunity to harness abundant solar resources, reduce carbon emissions, and foster economic development. This study evaluates the techno-economic feasibility of green hydrogen production in five West African countries: Ghana, Nigeria, Mali, Niger, and Senegal. The analyses cover the solar energy potential, hydrogen production capacities, and economic viability using the Levelised Cost of Hydrogen (LCOH) and Net Present Value (NPV). Results indicate substantial annual hydrogen production potential with LCOH values competitive with global benchmarks amidst the EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM). Despite this potential, several barriers exist, including high initial capital costs, policy and regulatory gaps, limited technical capacity, and water resource constraints. We recommend targeted strategies for strengthening policy frameworks, fostering international partnerships, enhancing regional infrastructure integration, and investing in capacity-building initiatives. By addressing these barriers, West Africa can be a key player in the global green hydrogen market. Full article

The construction industry is one of the largest consumers of resources and a significant contributor to environmental degradation in Europe, accounting for 50% of natural resource use, 34% of waste generation, and 5–12% of greenhouse gas emissions. In response to growing environmental pressures and regulatory demands, the sector needs to adopt sustainable material alternatives. This study examines the potential adoption of rice straw ash in the European construction sector. The research applies a PRISMA-based systematic literature review, integrated with the Multi-Level Perspective (MLP) framework, PESTLE, and SWOT analyses to provide a comprehensive assessment of the socio-technical dynamics influencing its adoption. The findings identify barriers including the absence of standards, fragmented supply chains, and inconsistent material quality. However, it highlights strategic opportunities such as the declining availability of conventional SCMs, alignment with the EU’s regulations and circular economy principles, and growing public awareness of sustainable materials. The study concludes that advancing the transition to RSA will require regulatory support, the development of standards, and coordinated collaboration among stakeholders to achieve large-scale implementation. By integrating multi-dimensional transition factors, this research contributes actionable insights for advancing sustainable material adoption. Full article

The rising use of medicinal plant food supplements in Europe reflects a growing consumer shift toward natural health solutions and sustainability-driven lifestyles. The study aims to synthesize current literature and regulatory frameworks to better understand the drivers behind medicinal plant food supplements use and the challenges within the botanical products market. Findings reveal that usage patterns are strongly influenced by age, gender, income, education level, and cultural traditions, with women, older adults, and health-conscious individuals leading consumption. Consumers increasingly demand products that are organic, traceable, and ethically sourced, aligning with broader sustainability goals. However, discrepancies in national regulations, transparency in labeling, and environmental concerns such as over-harvesting persist across the European Union (EU). The distinction between Food Supplements (FSs) and Traditional Herbal Medicinal Products (THMPs) under current EU directives contributes to market fragmentation and consumer confusion. In conclusion, harmonizing regulatory standards, promoting responsible sourcing, and integrating traditional knowledge into sustainable production models are essential for ensuring safety, consumer trust, and long-term ecological viability in the medicinal plant food supplement sector. Full article

The growing need for sustainable protein and functional food ingredients has made edible insects stand out as a flexible source of bioactives. Black Soldier Fly larva (BSFL) bioactives, such as chitooligosaccharides (COSs) and peptides, present potential benefits for gut health; nevertheless, their molecular pathways, clinical validation, and commercial scalability have yet to be thoroughly investigated. This study systematically analyzes current progress in BSFL bioactive extraction and characterization, emphasizing enzymatic and thermal processing, controlled enzyme development, and integrated supercritical fluid enzymatic pipelines. We assess preclinical and animal research that illustrates prebiotic modulation of Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus, and Faecalibacterium populations; antimicrobial peptide-mediated immune signaling; and antioxidant activity. Multi-omics frameworks that connect the microbial metabolism of COS to gut health help us understand how these processes function. A comparison of the regulatory environments for food and feed applications in the EU, North America, and Asia shows that there are gaps in human safety trials, harmonized standards, and techno-economic assessments. Finally, we suggest some next steps: randomized controlled human trials in groups with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and metabolic syndrome; standardized data integration pipelines for multi-omics; and life cycle and cost–benefit analyses of modular, vertically integrated BSFL biorefineries with AI-driven reactors, digital twins, and blockchain traceability. Addressing these issues will hasten the conversion of BSFL bioactives into safe, effective, and sustainable functional meals and nutraceuticals. Full article

Audit Quality Indicators (AQIs) have become vital tools for assessing and improving audit performance. This study examines how AQIs are defined, implemented, and interpreted across jurisdictions, with a particular focus on their integration into ESG (Environmental, Social, and Governance) assurance. Through a cross-jurisdictional comparison covering the EU, UK, US, and Canada, we analyze regulatory diversity and explore how different oversight models influence AQI adoption. Our findings reveal that AQIs play an increasingly important role not only in enhancing audit transparency but also in reinforcing the credibility of sustainability reporting under evolving frameworks like the EU’s Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive (CSRD). However, implementation remains fragmented, and standardization challenges persist. The study offers empirical insights from a large-scale survey of audit professionals, highlighting how perceptions of audit quality vary by country, experience, and organizational context. We conclude that the harmonization of AQI frameworks, especially with ESG-focused metrics, is essential to foster public trust and ensure the accountability of sustainability assurance. Full article

As maritime transport continues to grow, the volume and complexity of waste generated by ships, such as garbage, sewage, and oily residues, requires the establishment of effective, accessible and well-regulated collection systems in ports. Ensuring effective waste management remains a major challenge across the European Union, as differences in national implementation and charging systems continue to undermine the sustainability of port reception facilities. Directive (EU) 2019/883 on port reception facilities (PRF Directive) was introduced to harmonise regulatory standards, ensure adequate infrastructure, and remove barriers to proper waste management. This paper analyses the transposition and implementation of the PRF Directive in selected EU countries, focusing on the differences in cost recovery systems (CRS) applied in ports. A comparative analysis of charging models and waste management plans for ports is carried out, including an in-depth study of the leading European ports with the highest reported waste volumes. A nine-criteria evaluation framework was developed through a stakeholder focus group involving port authorities, concessionaires, shipping companies, and the Harbour Master’s Office, and was applied using the multi-criteria TOPSIS decision methodology, complemented by sensitivity analyses and adjustments for different port types (cargo, passenger, fisheries, marinas). The results show that the best-performing models achieved C* values between 0.514 and 0.529, confirming the robustness of the evaluation framework. Overall, the findings indicate that the optimal charging model is context-dependent, with No-Special-Fee systems without special charges favoured in passenger and leisure ports, and Prepaid + Reimbursement models more suitable for cargo and fishing ports. The paper concludes with policy recommendations aimed at increasing transparency, ensuring consistent reporting, and aligning CRS models more closely with EU environmental objectives. Full article

This study systematically compares thermal power direct carbon emission data quality control systems in China, the EU, and the U.S., quantifying differences and proposing optimization strategies. Core results: (1) Regulatory frameworks: The EU’s “Directive-Regulation-Standard” system controls data uncertainty ≤ ±3%; the U.S. “Clean Air Act+40 CFR Parts 75/98” framework achieves Continuous Emission Monitoring System (CEMS) median accuracy ~2% but has regional gaps; China’s 2024 legalization of CEMS data leaves a 32% eastern–western installation gap (~90% vs.~58%). (2) Technical paths: The EU mandates CEMS for units > 20 MW (65% ultrasonic flowmeters); the U.S. uses CEMS for coal-fired (error ≤ 1%) and accounting for gas-fired units; China’s 70% S-type Pitot tubes have 17% error in complex flow fields, while pilot multi-channel ultrasonic flowmeters reach ±1.5%. (3) Mechanisms: The EU’s QAL1-QAL3+AST cuts uncertainty by 40–60%; the U.S. NIST calibration limits cross-plant deviation ≤ 1.5%; China’s big data boosts anomaly identification by 72% but lacks full-process control. (4) China-specific proposals: Mandate CEMS for units > 300 MW, build 3–5 national flue gas platforms by 2026, and offer 60% western equipment subsidies, supporting carbon data quality improvement and international mutual recognition. Full article

The transition from soft to hard law is reshaping global agri-food governance, particularly in relation to sustainability and corporate responsibility. This article analyzes this shift by examining two regulatory approaches: voluntary instruments such as the OECD-FAO Guidance for Responsible Agricultural Supply Chains and binding EU directives like the Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive (CSDDD) and the Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive (CSRD). Using a qualitative and interpretive methodology, the study combines a literature review and two case studies (Nicoverde and Lavazza) to explore the evolution from soft law to hard law and the synergies and analyze how these tools are applied in the Italian agri-food sector and how they can contribute to improving corporate sustainability performance. Findings show that soft law has paved the way for more rigorous regulation, but the increasing compliance burden poses challenges, especially for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). These cases serve as virtuous examples to illustrate how soft and hard law interact in practice, offering concrete insights into the translation of general sustainability principles into corporate strategies. A hybrid governance framework—combining voluntary and binding tools—can foster sustainability if supported by coherent policies, stakeholder collaboration and adequate support mechanisms. The study offers practical insights for both companies and policymakers navigating the evolving legal scenario. Full article

This study presents a comprehensive assessment of the energy systems in eight Eastern European countries—Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia—focusing on their energy transition, security of supply, decarbonisation, and energy efficiency. Using principal component analysis (PCA) and clustering techniques, we identify three different energy profiles: countries dependent on fossil fuels (e.g., Poland, Bulgaria), countries with a balanced mix of nuclear and fossil fuels (e.g., the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary), and countries focusing mainly on renewables (e.g., Slovenia, Croatia). The sectoral analysis shows that industry and transport are the main drivers of energy consumption and CO₂ emissions, and the challenges and policy priorities of decarbonisation are determined. Regression modelling shows that dependence on fossil fuels strongly influences the use of renewable energy and electricity consumption patterns, while national differences in per capita electricity consumption are influenced by socio-economic and political factors that go beyond the energy structure. The Decarbonisation Level Index (DLI) indicator shows that Bulgaria and the Czech Republic achieve a high degree of self-sufficiency in domestic energy, while Hungary and Slovakia are the most dependent on imports. A typology based on energy intensity and import dependency categorises Romania as resilient, several countries as balanced, and Hungary, Slovakia, and Croatia as vulnerable. The projected investments up to 2030 indicate an annual increase in clean energy production of around 123–138 TWh through the expansion of nuclear energy, the development of renewable energy, the phasing out of coal, and the improvement of energy efficiency, which could reduce CO₂ emissions across the region by around 119–143 million tons per year. The policy recommendations emphasise the accelerated phase-out of coal, supported by just transition measures, the use of nuclear energy as a stable backbone, the expansion of renewables and energy storage, and a focus on the electrification of transport and industry. The study emphasises the significant influence of European Union (EU) policies—such as the “Clean Energy for All Europeans” and “Fit for 55” packages—on the design of national strategies through regulatory frameworks, financing, and market mechanisms. This analysis provides important insights into the heterogeneity of Eastern European energy systems and supports the design of customised, coordinated policy measures to achieve a sustainable, secure, and climate-resilient energy transition in the region. Full article

The European Union (EU) has positioned itself as a global leader in digital regulation, with landmark frameworks such as the Digital Services Act (DSA), the Digital Markets Act (DMA), and relevant AI Act. These initiatives reflect the EU’s ambition to balance technological innovation with consumer protection, market fairness, and digital sovereignty. Yet, a growing body of research suggests that the EU may be lagging its global competitors—namely the United States and China—when it comes to scaling high-growth digital enterprises and attracting investment in frontier technologies. This study investigates the paradox of regulation versus innovation in the EU by comparing key performance indicators such as R&D investment, venture capital availability, and digital innovation output with those of the U.S. and China. Drawing on datasets from WIPO, the OECD, IMF, and the World Bank, the paper incorporates both cross-sectional and longitudinal analysis to assess the EU’s digital trajectory. Findings suggest that while the EU excels in institutional frameworks and research output, structural barriers—such as regulatory fragmentation and underdeveloped capital markets—limit its global competitiveness. The article concludes by discussing policy implications and the need for adaptive governance to maintain Europe’s digital leadership. Full article

Background: Engineered nanoparticles (NPs)—titanium dioxide, silver, zinc oxide and silica—are widely used in cosmetics for UV protection, antimicrobial activity and texturising effects. Chronic consumer-level exposure may impair skin-barrier integrity, disturb microbiome composition and dysregulate immune signalling via the gut–skin axis. Current regulatory frameworks typically omit chronic- or microbiome-focused safety assessments, leaving potential gaps. Objectives: This study aimed to evaluate the long-term effects of cosmetic-relevant NPs (titanium dioxide, silver, zinc oxide, silica) on skin and gut microbiota, epithelial-barrier integrity and immune signalling—including telocyte- and exosome-mediated pathways—and to identify regulatory shortcomings, particularly the absence of microbiome endpoints, validated chronic models and consideration of vulnerable populations. Methods: Following PRISMA 2020, PubMed, Scopus and Web of Science were searched for English-language in vivo animal or human studies (December 2014–April 2025) meeting chronic-exposure criteria (≥90 days in rodents or >10% of lifespan in other species; for humans, prolonged, repetitive application over months to years consistent with cosmetic use). Although not registered in PROSPERO, the review adhered to a pre-specified protocol. Two independent reviewers screened studies; risk of bias was assessed using a modified SYRCLE tool (animal) or adapted NIH guidance (zebrafish). Owing to heterogeneity, findings were synthesised narratively. Results: Of 600 records, 450 unique articles were screened, 50 full texts were assessed and 12 studies were included. Oral exposure predominated and was associated with dysbiosis, barrier impairment, immune modulation and metabolic effects. Dermal models showed outcomes from minimal change to pronounced immune activation, contingent on host susceptibility. Comparative human–animal findings are summarised; telocyte and exosome pathways were largely unexplored. Regulatory reviews (EU SCCS, US FDA and selected Asian frameworks) revealed no requirements for chronic microbiome endpoints. Limitations: Evidence is limited by the small number of eligible studies, heterogeneity in NP characteristics and exposure routes, predominance of animal models and a scarcity of longitudinal human data. Conclusions: Cosmetic nanoparticles may disrupt the microbiome, compromise barrier integrity and trigger immune dysregulation—risks amplified in vulnerable users. Existing regulations lack requirements for chronic exposure, microbiome endpoints and testing in vulnerable groups, and neglect mechanistic pathways involving telocytes and exosomes. Long-term, real-world exposure studies integrating gut–skin microbiome and immune outcomes, and harmonised global nanomaterial-safety standards, are needed to ensure safer cosmetic innovation. Full article

Background/Objectives: This study examines the development of clinical trials investigating psilocybin for the treatment of psychopathologies, with a comparative focus on the United States (US) and the European Union (EU). The objective is to identify regional differences in trial progression, research infrastructure, and regulatory frameworks. Methods: A mixed-methods approach was applied, combining case studies, qualitative and quantitative research. Key variables included trial phase, geographical distribution, demographic factors, funding, governmental support, and public health policies. Results: The US demonstrated a substantially higher number of psilocybin trials across both early and advanced phases. This reflects a strong research infrastructure, growing financial investment, and increasing interest in psychedelic-assisted therapies. In contrast, the EU showed fewer trials and slower advancement, reflecting a more cautious stance that emphasizes patient safety and therapeutic efficacy. These divergences are shaped by differences in regulation, funding mechanisms, and sociocultural attitudes toward psychedelics in psychiatry. Conclusion: This comparative analysis highlights the uneven pace of psilocybin research across different regions. It also emphasizes the importance of international collaboration, harmonization of public health policies, and the development of standardized procedures prioritizing safety and effectiveness. Integrating psilocybin-assisted interventions into psychiatric practice has the potential to expand treatment options and strengthen mental health care, but coordinated global efforts are essential to ensure both scientific rigor and patient protection. Full article