Search Results (93)

Aflatoxins are widespread hepatotoxic food contaminants, yet age-specific cumulative exposure to multiple aflatoxins and associated health risks remain poorly characterized. This study assessed cumulative dietary exposure to aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁), B₂, G₁, and G₂, and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) risk across five age groups, evaluating the influence of packaging and retail sources on contamination. Contamination data of 1179 food samples and consumption data were integrated to calculate the margin of exposure (MoE) and annual HCC incidence. AFB₁ was most frequently detected and often co-occurred with other aflatoxins; bulk vegetable oils showed the highest total aflatoxin detection rate. Roasted peanuts contributed most to aflatoxin exposure, particularly among children aged 3–6 (MoE 900–1206). Rice, rice products, and coarse grains were primary contributors to aflatoxin-attributable HCC risk (0.008 cases per 100,000 person-years). Overall contamination was significantly higher in bulk products than in pre-packaged foods (p < 0.05) and in samples from farmers’ markets and grocery stores than in other sites (p < 0.05). These findings reveal non-negligible aflatoxin-related health risks for Guangzhou residents, especially young children and frequent consumers of staple grains and nuts. Targeted monitoring of high-risk foods and retail environments and age-specific dietary guidance are recommended to reduce population-level aflatoxin exposure and HCC risk. Full article

Potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in mining-impacted wetlands can transfer from soil and water to forage and grazing livestock, resulting in dietary exposure for nearby communities. In this study, arsenic (As), lead (Pb), and cadmium (Cd) were quantified in key environmental matrices (soil, surface water, and forage) and in sheep tissues (liver, kidney, and muscle) from six georeferenced grazing sites in the Ite coastal wetland (Tacna, Peru) during the dry season. Samples were acid-digested following U.S. EPA protocols and analyzed by atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) under QA/QC procedures (certified reference materials, blanks, duplicates, and matrix spikes); matrix-specific detection and quantification limits are reported. Arsenic dominated the contamination profile (forage: 428.6 mg kg⁻¹, dry weight; soil: 48.61 mg kg⁻¹; water: 0.97 mg L⁻¹) and was detected in sheep tissues (kidney: 0.1577 mg kg⁻¹; muscle: 0.1538 mg kg⁻¹; liver: 0.0644 mg kg⁻¹). Lead and cadmium were <LOQ in muscle and liver but were measurable in kidney (Pb: 0.0415 mg kg⁻¹; Cd: 0.0011 mg kg⁻¹). To support the interpretation of trophic transfer, screening transfer/bioaccumulation metrics (soil-to-forage, forage-to-tissue, and water-to-tissue) were calculated. Human dietary exposure was screened using estimated daily intake (EDI), hazard quotient (HQ), and margin of exposure (MOE). Because arsenic speciation was not measured, inorganic arsenic (iAs) risk was evaluated as a conservative upper bound (100% iAs) and through sensitivity scenarios (10–50% iAs). Under a high-meat-consumption scenario (300 g day⁻¹), the upper-bound assumption yielded HQ = 2.2 and MOE = 0.46; however, scenario analyses indicate that risk conclusions are highly dependent on the assumed iAs fraction. Overall, the results identify arsenic as a priority contaminant and support targeted grazing management, the provision of low-arsenic water sources, and remediation and monitoring actions to reduce exposure in vulnerable rural communities. Full article

The chemical composition of basil essential oil is influenced by plant developmental stage, which alters the relative distribution of volatile constituents and their functional properties. In this study, we investigated developmental-stage-dependent changes in the essential oil composition of Ocimum basilicum and evaluated their relationship with nitric oxide (NO) inhibitory activity and estragole exposure. Essential oils were obtained by hydrodistillation and analyzed by gas chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (GC–MS/MS), resulting in the identification of 54 volatile compounds representing 98.13–98.97% of the total composition. Estragole remained the dominant constituent, ranging from 70.58% to 85.55%, with the lowest proportion at the flowering stage (Day 85). In contrast, minor constituents, including eucalyptol (2.41–3.77%), β-ocimene (0.52–1.98%), and methyleugenol (~2.00%), increased during flowering. NO inhibitory activity in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages was strongest at Day 85. Estimated Daily Intake (EDI) ranged from 0.4215 to 1.1005 µg kg⁻¹ bw day⁻¹, and Margin of Exposure (MOE) ranged from 2999 to 7830. These findings indicate that developmental stage influences composition, activity, and exposure. From a compositional perspective, the observed redistribution among major chemical groups reflects a structured balance that can be interpreted within a symmetry-related framework in multicomponent systems. Full article

3-Monochloropropanediol esters (3-MCPDEs) and glycidyl esters (GEs) are food processing contaminants that raise significant food safety concerns due to their established potential for carcinogenicity. This study aimed to determine the occurrence of 3-MCPDEs and GEs in common Malaysian food items and to evaluate the associated health risks through dietary exposure assessment. A total of 251 samples, consisting of retail products and cooked/prepared meals, were analysed using GC-MS. The food consumption data were obtained from published national food surveys. Risk was characterised using health-based guidance values (HBGVs) and margin of exposure (MOE), lifetime cancer risk (LCR), and disability-adjusted life year (DALY) estimates. 3-MCPDE was detected in 94.8% of samples (range: ND to 7.77 mg/kg), while GE was found in 83.3% of samples (range: ND to 9.41 mg/kg). The highest levels were consistently observed in refined vegetable fats and oil products, specifically shortening (3-MCPDE: 3.53 [IQR 2.76–5.16] mg/kg; GE: 4.78 [IQR 3.52–6.14] mg/kg) and margarine (3-MCPDE: 2.50 [IQR 1.11–3.59] mg/kg; GE: 3.60 [IQR 1.18–5.26] mg/kg). Exposure assessment identified fried rice as the largest contributor to total daily intake (3-MCPDE: 3.16 μg/kg BW/day; GE: 1.36 μg/kg BW/day). Total exposure to 3-MCPDE exceeded the provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) established by JECFA by 39.5%, indicating a potential health concern. Low MOE estimates (<10,000) for 3-MCPDE and GE were determined for several food categories, including snacks, kuih-muih, and fried cooked dishes. Chronic GE exposure was estimated to cause up to 6.9 (for mean consumers) and 24.9 (for high consumers) cancer cases per year, with total the DALYs quantified at 124.2 years lost per 100,000 of the population. These data represent a worst-case scenario; however, risks could be minimised through continued surveillance, mitigation strategies by relevant authorities regarding food processing, and informed dietary choices. Full article

This study aimed to estimate dietary exposure to aflatoxins (AFs) and characterize its associated risks through the consumption of dried fruits and chocolates among the adult population of Yerevan, the capital city of Armenia. Asflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and total AFs were determined using HPLC in 10 composite samples of widely consumed dried fruits and chocolates, prepared by pooling 100 individual sub-samples into 5 dried fruits and 5 chocolate composites. Individual consumption data were obtained via food frequency questionnaires and were stratified by consumer groups and percentiles. Exposure scenarios (lower-, middle-, upper-bound and detected mean) were applied, and risk was assessed using the margin of exposure (MOE) approach with a BMDL₁₀ of 0.4 μg/kg bw/day. The study findings revealed that dried fruits had higher contamination levels (detected mean content of 10 μg/kg AFB1, 15 μg/kg total AFs) compared to chocolates (detected mean content of 0.5 μg/kg AFB1, and 0.9 μg/kg total AFs), resulting in lower MOE values despite smaller consumption quantities. Detectable AFs in dried fruits from open (street) markets exceeded the EU maximum limits, while Armenia currently lacks national regulatory limits for these products. MOEs were below 10,000 for most consumption groups, indicating a potential public health concern. This research emphasizes the urgent need for continuous monitoring and the establishment of harmonized national regulatory limits for AFs in dried fruits. Full article

L-Ergothioneine (L-EGT), a naturally occurring thiol compound abundant mainly in edible fungi, is increasingly regarded as a potentially beneficial bioactive constituent. However, population-level exposure data remain limited. This study aimed to estimate background dietary exposure to L-EGT among Chinese residents, describe its distribution across population subgroups and regions, identify major food contributors, and characterize the risk using a margin of exposure (MOE) approach. Individual body-weight-normalized L-EGT intakes were estimated from published food concentration data and three-day dietary recalls of 42,218 participants. MOEs were calculated using a no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) of 800 mg/kg bw/d obtained from subchronic toxicity studies. The mean dietary exposure to L-EGT was 0.043 mg/kg bw/d (MOE = 18,605) in the general population and 0.174 mg/kg bw/d (MOE = 4598) among consumers, with 95th percentile exposures of 0.244 mg/kg bw/d (MOE = 3279) and 0.644 mg/kg bw/d (MOE = 1242), respectively. MOE values were consistently above the safety threshold of 300 across all subgroups, with less than 0.3% of the total population and 1.3% of consumers aged 3–6 years falling below this value. These results indicate that current natural dietary exposure to L-EGT in China is low and does not raise safety concerns and provide essential baseline data for future studies on its health effects, optimal intake ranges, and long-term safety. Full article

Aflatoxin M1 (AFM₁) is a carcinogenic milk contaminant and a persistent food safety concern in Serbia, especially under changing climate conditions that exacerbate contamination risks. This review synthesizes national research conducted between 2012 and 2024, covering more than thirty thousand analyzed milk and dairy samples, to evaluate AFM1 contamination, public health risks, and the need for structured risk ranking and prioritization frameworks recommended by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). A systematic analysis of Serbian studies explored AFM₁ occurrence, dietary exposure, and health risk estimates across population groups. The evidence reveals persistent AFM1 contamination with pronounced seasonal peaks during drought years and winter months, frequently exceeding the EU maximum limit of 0.05 µg/kg. Recent multi-year studies confirm that climate-driven AFB1 contamination in maize and compound feed remains a significant and recurring source of AFM1 in milk, highlighting the necessity of structured risk prioritization frameworks. Exposure assessments highlight children and students as the most vulnerable groups, displaying the highest estimated daily intake. Although current margin of exposure (MOE) values remain within acceptable limits, the persistence of contamination underscores a need for proactive risk management. Adoption of FAO and EFSA risk-ranking methodologies would enhance monitoring efficiency, protect high-risk populations, and support alignment with EU standards. Implementing structured risk prioritization is crucial for strengthening Serbia’s food safety governance, guiding policy decisions, and reducing the health burden of AFM₁ in the dairy sector. Full article

Global concern surrounds the contamination of dairy products with aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), a mycotoxin found in the milk of ruminants fed with aflatoxin B1-contaminated feed. Among dairy products, cheese is of the foods with the highest concentration of AFM1 mycotoxin, although the reported levels vary widely. This study analyzed AFM1 levels in 100 commercial cheeses produced and marketed in Spain. AFM1 was detected in 51% of the samples, with concentrations ranging from 8.1 to 470.7 ng/kg. The milk type and animal species significantly influenced the contamination levels with a higher prevalence and mean contamination rates in cheeses made from cow’s milk (67.6% and 43 ng/kg) and pasteurized milk (60.7% and 33 ng/kg). The degree of ripening of the cheese did not significantly influence the contamination of the products, although the occurrence and average levels observed in fresh cheeses (63.0% and 53 ng/kg) were higher than those observed in mature (48.0% and 13 ng/kg) and semi-mature cheeses (43.5% and 11 ng/kg). There were no significant differences in the contamination levels between artisanal (56.6% and 33 ng/kg) and industrial (44.7% and 12 ng/kg) cheeses. The dietary exposure estimates for average consumers were low across all age groups: 0.004 ng/kg bw/day (adults), 0.007 ng/kg bw/day (adolescents), 0.025 ng/kg bw/day (children), and 0.081 ng/kg bw/day (toddlers). Consequently, the Margin of Exposure (MOE) values exceeded 10,000, indicating a low public health concern, except for toddlers in the 95th percentile of consumption. Full article

This study evaluated the occurrence of ochratoxin A (OTA) in Turkish coffee and its potential health implications under current consumption patterns by analyzing 65 ground and roasted Turkish coffee samples collected across Türkiye. OTA contamination was detected in 53 samples (82%). Based on the mean OTA concentration, the Estimated Daily Intake (EDI) was calculated as 0.1403 ng/kg body weight/day, and health risk characterization was performed using the Margin of Exposure (MOE) approach in accordance with the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) recommendations for chronic exposure assessment. MOE calculations enabled a refined characterization of health risks under realistic (0.5 cup/day), average (1 cup/day), and high (3 cups/day) consumption scenarios. The MOE values for carcinogenic (neoplastic) effects ranged from 34,450 to 206,847, all exceeding the EFSA reference threshold of 10,000 and indicating a low level of concern for carcinogenic risk associated with Turkish coffee consumption. For non-carcinogenic (non-neoplastic) kidney effects, MOE values ranged from 11,238 to 67,475 across the different consumption scenarios, all exceeding the EFSA reference threshold of 200, indicating a low level of concern for the general population. In conclusion, the findings demonstrate that Turkish coffee consumption does not pose an OTA-related carcinogenic or non-neoplastic health risk for the general population under current consumption patterns. Nevertheless, considering the widespread consumption of Turkish coffee, continued monitoring and strict implementation of control measures throughout the production chain remain advisable to ensure long-term consumer safety. Full article

Over the last 15 years, mixture risk assessment for food xenobiotics has evolved from conceptual discussions and simple screening tools, such as the Hazard Index (HI), towards operational, component-based and probabilistic frameworks embedded in major food-safety institutions. This review synthesizes methodological and regulatory advances in cumulative risk assessment for dietary “cocktails” of pesticides, contaminants and other xenobiotics, with a specific focus on food-relevant exposure scenarios. At the toxicological level, the field is now anchored in concentration/dose addition as the default model for similarly acting chemicals, supported by extensive experimental evidence that most environmental mixtures behave approximately dose-additively at low effect levels. Building on this paradigm, a portfolio of quantitative metrics has been developed to operationalize component-based mixture assessment: HI as a conservative screening anchor; Relative Potency Factors (RPF) and Toxic Equivalents (TEQ) to express doses within cumulative assessment groups; the Maximum Cumulative Ratio (MCR) to diagnose whether risk is dominated by one or several components; and the combined Margin of Exposure (MOET) as a point-of-departure-based integrator that avoids compounding uncertainty factors. Regulatory frameworks developed by EFSA, the U.S. EPA and FAO/WHO converge on tiered assessment schemes, biologically informed grouping of chemicals and dose addition as the default model for similarly acting substances, while differing in scope, data infrastructure and legal embedding. Implementation in food safety critically depends on robust exposure data streams. Total Diet Studies provide population-level, “as eaten” exposure estimates through harmonized food-list construction, home-style preparation and composite sampling, and are increasingly combined with conventional monitoring. In parallel, human biomonitoring quantifies internal exposure to diet-related xenobiotics such as PFAS, phthalates, bisphenols and mycotoxins, embedding mixture assessment within a dietary-exposome perspective. Across these developments, structured uncertainty analysis and decision-oriented communication have become indispensable. By integrating advances in toxicology, exposure science and regulatory practice, this review outlines a coherent, tiered and uncertainty-aware framework for assessing real-world dietary mixtures of xenobiotics, and identifies priorities for future work, including mechanistically and data-driven grouping strategies, expanded use of physiologically based pharmacokinetic modelling and refined mixture-sensitive indicators to support public-health decision-making. Full article

This study systematically assessed the dietary exposure risks of short-chain and medium-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs and MCCPs) through chicken consumption in China, where these persistent organic pollutants are widely produced and used. As an important component of the Chinese diet, chicken was selected as the research matrix due to its high lipid content and potential for chlorinated paraffin bio-accumulation, while available data on these contaminants in market-sold chicken remains limited. We collected 126 representative commercial chicken samples from eight major provinces and municipalities across China and conducted precise analysis using two-dimensional gas chromatography with electron capture negative ionization mass spectrometry (GC×GC-ECNI/MS). The probabilistic exposure assessment was performed through Monte Carlo simulation, and health risks were characterized using the margin of exposure (MOE) approach. The results revealed mean concentrations of 95.8 ng/g wet weight (range: 9.5–1542.4 ng/g ww) for SCCPs and 156.6 ng/g ww (range: 20.0–1517.9 ng/g ww) for MCCPs in chicken samples, with Jiangsu Province exhibiting significantly higher contamination levels compared to other regions (p < 0.001). The estimated mean dietary exposures through chicken consumption were 32.8 ng/kg bw/d for SCCPs and 52.6 ng/kg bw/d for MCCPs in the general Chinese population. Notably, children aged 3–6 years and the Consumer only showed the highest exposure levels. All calculated MOE values substantially exceeded the risk threshold of 1000, indicating no significant health concerns from current exposure to SCCPs and MCCPs through chicken consumption in China. Full article

Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) are a class of persistent organic pollutants that pose potential human health risks through dietary exposure. In this study, we analyzed CPs in 55 chicken egg samples collected from five regions across China. Short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs) and medium-chain chlorinated paraffins (MCCPs) were detected using a two-dimensional gas chromatograph coupled with an electron-capture negative-ionization mass spectrometer. Dietary exposure risks were assessed using the margin of exposure (MOE) approach based on the food consumption data of Chinese residents from 2018 to 2020. The average concentrations of SCCPs and MCCPs in all samples were 28.4 ng/g wet weight (ww) and 176.5 ng/g ww, respectively. The congener profiles of SCCPs and MCCPs were similar across different regions, with C_10–11 Cl_6–7 as the dominant homologs. For MCCPs, the average contributions of C₁₄-CP, C₁₅-CP, C₁₆-CP, and C₁₇-CP were 25%, 21%, 27%, and 27%, respectively. The estimated daily intake (EDI) for the entire population was 18.3 ng/kg body weight (bw)/d for SCCPs and 118.3 ng/kg bw/d for MCCPs. In the consumer-only group, the average exposure levels of SCCPs and MCCPs were 27.8 ng/kg bw/d and 174.1 ng/kg bw/d, respectively. This preliminary risk assessment indicates that there is no health risk to the Chinese population from exposure to CP through consumption of chicken eggs. Full article

Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), a hydroxylated metabolite of aflatoxin B1, is a persistent food safety hazard in the dairy production chain. This study investigated AFM1 occurrence in fermented dairy products collected from the Croatian market in spring 2025 and assessed associated dietary exposure risks. A total of 81 samples were analyzed using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) following immunoaffinity column clean-up. AFM1 was detected in 48.1% of samples, with a mean concentration of 0.015 µg/kg. Products with thermophilic and probiotic bacterial cultures showed the lowest incidence rates, at 33.3% and 40.0%, respectively. Significantly higher AFM1 occurrence was found in Croatian samples than in imported ones (p < 0.05). Exposure assessment, based on estimated daily intake (EDI), hazard index (HI), and margin of exposure (MOE), identified toddlers and children as the most at-risk groups, with EDI ranging from 0.21 to 0.93 ng/kg bw/day, depending on AFM1 concentration. HI exceeded 1 even at mean AFM1 levels, while MOE fell below the safety threshold of 10,000 in worst-case scenarios, indicating potential health concerns. These findings underscore the need for continuous monitoring and targeted risk mitigation strategies for vulnerable populations, and support expanding regulatory limits to include processed dairy products. Full article

Dietary intake is the major route of human exposure to fat-soluble and persistent chlorinated paraffins (CPs), which tend to accumulate in lipid-rich foods such as edible vegetable oils. This study investigated the levels of short-chain (SCCPs) and medium-chain chlorinated paraffins (MCCPs) in commercially available vegetable oils and assessed their potential health risks. The concentrations of SCCPs and MCCPs in 29 commercial edible vegetable oils were analyzed using comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled with electron capture negative ionization mass spectrometry (GC × GC-ECNI-MS). Dietary exposure levels were estimated through probabilistic assessment integrating analytical results with dietary consumption data from the Chinese Total Diet Study (2017–2020). The margin of exposure (MOE) approach was employed for risk characterization. The average concentrations of SCCPs and MCCPs were 112 ng/g and 139 ng/g, respectively. The highest SCCP and MCCP concentration were found in sesame oil and peanut oil, respectively. Overall, MCCPs levels were generally higher than SCCPs. The estimated daily intakes (EDIs) of SCCPs and MCCPs were 56.06 and 73.63 ng/kg bw/d on average, with high consumers (P95) exposed to 180.91 and 230.49 ng/kg bw/d, respectively. Corresponding MOE at P95 were 1.27 × 10⁴ for SCCPs and 1.56 × 10⁵ for MCCPs. The current SCCPs and MCCPs dietary intake originated from edible vegetable oils did not pose a significant health risk. This study provides the first probabilistic exposure assessment of CPs in Chinese edible vegetable oils, offering current contamination profiles. Full article

Coix seed, a traditional medicinal and edible crop, is susceptible to mycotoxin contamination posing potential health risks, yet systematic risk assessments for its dual dietary and medicinal pathways remain limited. Fifty batches were collected from five major production regions in China. UPLC-MS/MS was used to quantify eight mycotoxins in raw materials and decoctions. A Monte Carlo simulation model assessed long-term (20-year) health risks via both pathways, and acceptable daily intake (ADI) levels were derived using a combined margin of exposure (MOE) threshold of 10,000. Results indicated that mycotoxins were present in 94% of samples. Zearalenone (ZEN) was the most frequent, with an occurrence of 82% and concentrations of 52.16~1804.43 μg/kg. Dietary exposure indicated potential risks for ZEN (MOE = 259), aflatoxin B1 (AFB1, MOE = 666), and AFB2 (MOE = 8040). Six mycotoxins transferred to decoctions at rates of 0.70~19.73%, with long-term medicinal use indicating potential ZEN-related risk (MOE = 4880). Multi-mycotoxin co-exposure assessment revealed elevated dietary risk (combined MOE = 181), whereas medicinal exposure within a standard 3-month treatment course remained within acceptable limits. Safety intake thresholds are proposed: ≤30 g/day for ≤130 days (dietary) and ≤30 g/day for ≤2000 days (medicinal). This study establishes a risk assessment framework applicable to herbal materials with both dietary and medicinal applications. Full article