Search Results (194)

Carbon dots (CDs), including carbon quantum dots (CQDs), are ultra-small carbon-based nanomaterials, typically below 10 nm, with tunable photoluminescence, high aqueous dispersibility, favorable biocompatibility, low toxicity, and abundant surface functional groups. These properties make CDs promising multifunctional platforms for nanomedicine, particularly in bioimaging, biosensing, targeted drug/gene delivery, photodynamic therapy (PDT), photothermal therapy (PTT), antimicrobial treatment, and theranostic applications. This review critically examines recent advances in CD fabrication, including top-down, bottom-up, green biomass-derived, microwave-assisted, hydrothermal, and emerging hybrid strategies, with emphasis on how precursor selection, heteroatom doping, surface passivation, and polymer/ligand functionalization regulate optical performance, biological interaction, and therapeutic efficiency. The review discusses structural classification, including CQDs, graphene quantum dots (GQDs), carbon nanodots, and carbonized polymer dots (CPDs), together with major characterization approaches such as ultraviolet–visible (UV–Vis) spectroscopy, Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Raman spectroscopy, and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM). Particular attention is given to red/near-infrared (NIR) emission, renal clearance, drug-loading behavior, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, toxicity mechanisms, biodistribution, and long-term biosafety. This review also highlights key translational barriers, including batch-to-batch variability, limited standardization, scalable manufacturing, regulatory uncertainty, and incomplete pharmacokinetic evaluation. It considers artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) as emerging tools for reproducible CD design. CDs represent versatile and clinically promising nanoplatforms, but their translation requires standardized synthesis, rigorous safety assessment, and application-specific regulatory validation. Full article

Polymer-based nanoparticle systems have emerged as a versatile platform for advancing precision medicine by enabling controlled, targeted, and multifunctional drug delivery. This narrative review synthesizes recent progress in the design, functionalization, and clinical translation of polymer-based nanoparticles, with a focused scope on drug delivery, diagnostics, theranostics, nanosponges, and regenerative medicine. Specifically, it highlights three key insights: (i) surface engineering strategies, including ligand conjugation and stealth coatings, substantially enhance targeting specificity and reduce off-target toxicity; (ii) stimulus-responsive polymers enable spatiotemporally controlled drug release, improving therapeutic outcomes in complex disease microenvironments; and (iii) integration with artificial intelligence (AI) supports the rational design of personalized nanomedicines based on patient-specific molecular profiles. The innovative nature of this review lies in its comprehensive approach, which combines material design parameters with clinical outcomes and the barriers to implementation. Despite significant progress, serious challenges remain, including scalable and reproducible manufacturing, regulatory harmonization, and comprehensive long-term biosafety assessment. In the future, the priority should be to develop reliable manufacturing processes, a harmonized regulatory framework, and data-driven, clinically validated design methodologies. Overall, polymer-based nanoparticles are poised to redefine targeted therapy, but their clinical impact will depend on bridging the gap between laboratory innovation and scalable, safe, and personalized medical applications. Full article

The development of biocompatible functional nanostructures has emerged as a key driver in advancing nanomedicine, environmental remediation, and sustainable energy technologies. However, conventional synthesis methods often rely on toxic reagents, hazardous solvents, and energy-intensive processes, raising significant concerns regarding environmental impact and biological safety. In this context, green synthesis has gained increasing attention as a sustainable alternative, utilizing biological systems, renewable resources, and environmentally benign solvents to produce functional nanomaterials. This mini-review provides an overview of recent advances in the green synthesis of organic, inorganic, and hybrid nanostructures, highlighting their physicochemical properties and functional performance. Particular emphasis is placed on their applications in nanomedicine, including drug delivery, bioimaging, antimicrobial and anticancer therapies, and theranostic platforms. Additionally, their roles in environmental applications, such as pollutant degradation and water treatment, and in energy-related systems, including catalysis, solar energy conversion, and energy storage, are discussed with selected representative examples. Despite significant progress, key challenges remain, including limited mechanistic understanding, reproducibility issues, scalability constraints, and uncertainties related to long-term toxicity and environmental impact. Addressing these limitations will be essential for the safe and large-scale implementation of green nanotechnology. Overall, the integration of green chemistry principles with advanced nanomaterial design offers a promising pathway toward the development of multifunctional, sustainable, and high-performance nanostructures capable of addressing global health, environmental, and energy challenges. Full article

The creation of innovative systems that are able to combine diagnosis and therapy is a crucial opportunity in nuclear medicine. Here, we propose a methodological and multiscale approach for the development of a theranostic platform based on AuNRs functionalized with radiopharmaceuticals. AuNRs offer a versatile and effective system due to their unique physicochemical properties and the possibility of surface functionalization with targeting molecules. Within this framework, key challenges include the functionalization of AuNRs to target the cell nucleus, the loading of AuNRs with radiopharmaceuticals, and the investigation of Auger electron emission from AuNRs under gamma irradiation. Multiscale modelling is employed to describe the behaviour of the system within the cellular environment and to predict potential radiobiological enhancement effects, including synergistic interactions between functionalized AuNRs and radiopharmaceutical agents such as ^99mTc-sestaMIBI. The experimental activity includes gamma irradiation studies, along with the structural and physical characterization of nanomaterials and in vitro biological investigations on T98G cells, to evaluate cytotoxicity and metabolic alterations, with the aim of assessing the potential synergistic effects of the combined system. Full article

Background/Objectives: Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are highly valuable nanomaterials due to their unique optical and physicochemical properties. AgNPs have a lot of promise as contrast-enhancing and diagnostic agents in image-guided treatment. With a focus on their incorporation into image-guided and theranostic approaches, this narrative review attempts to assess the current function of AgNPs in imaging diagnostics. Methods: Using major scientific databases, such as PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus, a narrative literature review has been conducted with an emphasis on recent preclinical and experimental research examining AgNP-based systems for diagnostic imaging applications. The design of the NPs, surface functionalization, imaging modality, and diagnostic performance of the evaluated studies were analyzed. Results: Due to their surface plasmon resonance and tunable physicochemical properties, AgNPs show great promise in a variety of imaging techniques, such as optical imaging, computed tomography (CT), and multimodal platforms, according to the reviewed literature. Functionalized AgNPs emerged as agents in image-guided therapy due to their improved target selectivity, enhanced imaging contrast, and signal amplification in tissues. Conclusions: AgNPs are appealing nanoscale platforms for image-guided methods and imaging diagnostics. Despite their encouraging preclinical results, some key issues, such as toxicity, biocompatibility, and clinical translation, remain critical. AgNP-based therapeutic and diagnostic systems will need to overcome these constraints in the future. Full article

Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) are porous hybrid nanomaterials assembled from metal ions or clusters and organic ligands. Owing to their tunable structures, versatile compositions, and exceptional payload capacities, MOF-based systems have attracted increasing interest in drug delivery and theranostics. Yet, despite rapid progress in efficacy-focused studies, translational evaluation remains limited by incomplete evidence on safety, in vivo fate (pharmacokinetics), and degradation. This review examines MOF nanomedicines through a three-element evidence-chain framework and a four-level material evaluation and substantiation (MES) grading system to relate commonly reported endpoints to development-relevant questions. Major degradation patterns across representative MOF families are summarized, and the influence of surface engineering on safety, in vivo fate, and degradation is discussed. Representative studies are re-examined to illustrate how evidence gaps in these dimensions may affect translational interpretation. Key priorities for the field include dose standardization, quantitative in vivo evaluation, harmonized degradation assays, long-term and repeat-dose studies, and more consistent formulation reporting. By integrating these issues into a unified evidence-chain framework, this review aims to support a more comparable, interpretable, and development-relevant evaluation of MOF nanomedicine research. Full article

Nanotheranostic platforms integrating diagnostic and therapeutic functions within a single system have attracted significant attention in precision medicine. However, conventional nanotheranostics based on systemic administration often suffer from off-target accumulation, limited retention at disease sites, and dose-limiting toxicity. To address these limitations, hydrogel-integrated nanotheranostic systems have emerged as a promising strategy for achieving localized diagnosis and therapy with improved spatial control and safety. This review provides a comprehensive overview of recent advances in hydrogel–nanomaterial nanotheranostic platforms, focusing on their design principles, diagnostic capabilities, and therapeutic applications. We discuss the complementary roles of hydrogels and nanomaterials, where hydrogels function as localized reservoirs and tissue interfaces, and nanomaterials provide imaging and therapeutic functionalities. Key integration strategies including physical encapsulation, chemical conjugation, and in situ nanoparticle formation are systematically compared. We further summarize localized diagnostic modalities such as real-time imaging and therapy monitoring, and highlight research-driven applications in cancer treatment, inflammation and infection management, and tissue regeneration. Finally, major translational challenges and future perspectives toward personalized, image-guided local theranostics are discussed. Overall, hydrogel-based nanotheranostic platforms represent a versatile approach for next-generation localized precision medicine. Full article

The high morbidity and mortality of cancer pose a severe challenge to human health. Traditional diagnostic and therapeutic strategies still exhibit obvious limitations in early diagnostic sensitivity, therapeutic precision, and real-time monitoring of treatment efficacy. The development of nanotechnology has provided novel solutions for precision cancer theranostics. Among nanomaterials, gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have become a research hotspot in tumor nanomedicine due to their tunable size and morphology, excellent localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) effect, and favorable biocompatibility. However, despite encouraging preclinical outcomes, several challenges hinder their clinical translation, including an incomplete understanding of long-term toxicity, complex in vivo biological interactions, the lack of standardized evaluation protocols, and regulatory uncertainties and manufacturing reproducibility issues. This paper systematically reviews the physicochemical and biological mechanisms of AuNPs in cancer theranostics, and summarizes the latest research advances of AuNPs in cancer detection and diagnosis (including biomarker detection and multimodal imaging) as well as in therapeutic fields, covering photothermal therapy (PTT), photodynamic therapy (PDT), radiosensitization, targeted drug and nucleic acid delivery, and immunotherapy-assisted strategies. Furthermore, we discuss the development of intelligent and stimuli-responsive theranostic nanoplatforms based on AuNPs, and outline their future prospects in precision medicine and personalized cancer therapy, with particular emphasis on the requirements for clinical translation, including safety evaluation, large-scale production, and regulatory approval pathways. Full article

Iron oxide nanoparticles have emerged as multifunctional compounds with prominent potential in cancer theranostics, particularly in photothermal therapy (PTT) and photodynamic therapy (PDT). Their unique electronic and crystal structures, such as the dispersion of Fe²⁺ and Fe³⁺ ions and d-orbital splitting, contribute to their magnetic and catalytic properties. In PTT, Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles exhibit moderate near-infrared (NIR) absorption and photothermal conversion efficiency, which can be enhanced through adjustments in particle size, surface modification, and combinations with other components. In PDT, Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles demonstrate intrinsic peroxidase-like catalytic activity, facilitating Fenton and photo-Fenton reactions that generate reactive oxygen species (ROS), including hydroxyl radicals (^•OH), thereby amplifying oxidative stress in cancer cells. These nanoparticles can also function as carriers for photosensitisers (PS), promoting targeted delivery and enhanced ROS generation. Multifunctional nanomaterials that integrate Fe₃O₄ with other therapeutic agents and targeting ligands have demonstrated synergistic antitumour effects through amplified photothermal, photodynamic, chemodynamic, and chemotherapeutic mechanisms. Despite certain drawbacks, such as relatively low NIR absorption and challenges in optimising delivery and light activation, ongoing improvements in Fe₃O₄-based nanoplatforms present significant potential for enhancing treatment outcomes and the precision of cancer therapy. This article systematically explores the synergistic role of Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles in PTT and PDT, encompassing their magnetic and catalytic characteristics. Additionally, it focuses on multifunctional hybrid nanoplatforms that combine Fe₃O₄ with targeting or imaging agents, highlighting their potential to enhance therapeutic precision. Full article

Nanomaterials are emerging versatile platforms for therapeutic delivery, as they offer precise control over drug, antioxidant, and genetic payload transport across biological barriers. Inorganic, organic, hybrid, and biomimetic systems are the major classes of nanomaterials, which all have different physicochemical properties such as size, surface charge, and surface functionalization. These properties collectively influence stability, biodistribution, cellular uptake, and release kinetics. Engineering strategies are increasingly using stimuli-responsive designs that are triggered by pH, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and intracellular redox gradients to perform spatially and temporally controlled delivery. Antioxidant and redox-modulating nanocarriers are of great importance as they overcome the limited bioavailability and nonspecific activity of conventional antioxidants by improving stability, targeting oxidative microenvironments, and allowing for regulated release. Improvements in lipid, polymeric, and inorganic nanoplatforms have also developed gene delivery applications, including siRNA, mRNA, and CRISPR/Cas systems, to provide better cytosolic release and precise therapeutics. When diagnostic imaging is integrated with therapy through theranostic nanoparticles, real-time monitoring and personalized intervention are possible. Safety, scalable manufacturing, and regulatory alignment are some challenges that show the need for standardization and translational procedures to utilize the potential of theranostic nanomedicine. Full article

Carbon dots offer excellent physico-chemical properties and biocompatibility for cancer theranostics systems, either as therapeutic agents themselves, or as potential drug carriers. It is, however, postulated that the drug carrier affects the mechanism of action and intracellular target molecules of a drug. Therefore, in the present study, we systematically evaluated protein alterations in HeLa cervical cancer cells after treatment with sulfur-doped carbon dots (S-CDs). Synchrotron Radiation μFTIR spectroscopy and label-free LC–MS/MS proteomics integrated with bioinformatics were used to assess molecular changes. μFTIR revealed a shift and increased intensity of α-helices, indicating structural changes in proteins as a result of the interaction between S-CDs and cells. Proteomic analysis identified 122 statistically significant (p ≤ 0.05) proteins with increased abundance and 61 with decreased abundance following S-CD exposure, many of which possess high α-helix content, consistent with μFTIR findings. Functional analyses showed that up-regulated proteins were enriched in molecular adaptor, transporter, and transcription regulator activities, particularly those involved in RNA metabolism and translation. Down-regulated proteins were dominated by protein-modifying enzymes and cytoskeletal components. Pathway enrichment analysis indicated alterations in mRNA processing, ribosomal pathways, translation factors, aminoacyl-tRNA biosynthesis, and proteasome degradation. Key hub proteins included ribosomal proteins and translation initiation factors. S-CD treatment led to opposite regulation of many proteins compared to their regulation in untreated HeLa cells including down-regulation of ribosomal proteins (RPS27L, RPS19, and RPS5), aminoacyl-tRNA biosynthesis proteins (IARS1, LARS1, and MARS1), and proteasome degradation proteins (PSMD2, PSMD3, and PSMD11), which aligns with the observed cytotoxic effect of S-CDs on cervical cancer cells. Overall, these results highlight significant proteomic and structural protein changes induced by S-CDs and support their potential for cervical cancer treatment, warranting further investigation of this nanomaterial’s biological applications. Full article

Aptamers, short single-stranded DNA or RNA oligonucleotides, are emerging as transformative tools in cardiology for the diagnosis, treatment, and theranostics of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). This review highlights their dual utility. In diagnostics, aptamers enable the construction of highly sensitive biosensors for key cardiac biomarkers (e.g., troponins, myoglobin, C-reactive protein, natriuretic peptides), outperforming conventional assays and enabling early detection and point-of-care testing. Therapeutically, aptamers offer targeted, controllable, and reversible anticoagulation, as demonstrated by clinical-stage candidates like BT200 (anti-vWF) and NU172 (anti-thrombin), whose action can be rapidly reversed with antidote oligonucleotides. Furthermore, aptamers serve as precision delivery vehicles (e.g., Gint4.T, RNA-Apt30) for transporting therapeutic peptides or nucleic acids specifically to cardiomyocytes. Recent integration with nanomaterials (quantum dots, graphene, liposomes, DNA origami) has led to advanced biosensing and drug delivery platforms. Despite challenges like stability and the polyethylene glycol (PEG) immunogenicity, ongoing clinical trials underscore the significant potential of aptamer technology to bridge precise diagnostics and targeted therapy, paving the way for innovative, personalized CVD interventions.) Full article

Chronic and infected wounds remain a major clinical challenge due to their dynamic microenvironments and the lack of real-time diagnostic feedback in conventional dressings. Recent advances in stimuli-responsive nanomaterial-based biosensors have enabled the development of smart wound-care systems capable of continuous monitoring and on-demand therapeutic intervention. This review systematically summarizes progress in nanomaterial-enabled wound biosensing strategies, with a focus on pH, reactive oxygen species, and temperature nanosensors, which serve as key indicators of infection, inflammation, and healing status. We discuss the sensing mechanisms and functional roles of diverse nanomaterials. A particular focus is placed on emerging multimodal and theranostic platforms which integrate biochemical and physical sensing with controlled drug release, photothermal or photodynamic therapy, and redox regulation. These systems represent a shift from passive wound monitoring toward closed-loop, adaptive wound management. Also, future perspectives are outlined, highlighting the convergence of nanomaterials, self-powered electronics, and intelligent data processing as a pathway toward personalized and precision wound care. Full article

Breast cancer continues to be a major challenge in global health, in part due to significant inequalities in access to costly diagnostic and therapeutic technologies based on antibodies. Their manufacturing requires complex and expensive bioproduction systems, resulting in limited availability of these tools—essential for early detection and targeted treatment—in many regions, particularly in Latin America. This gap has highlighted the need for cost-effective and scalable theranostic alternatives, increasing interest in aptamers. Obtained through SELEX technology, aptamers are synthetic DNA or RNA oligomers that fold into functional structures. Among their advantages are high affinity for their target, low immunogenicity, and chemical synthesis, which assures reproducible production. Aptamers have expanded the landscape of diagnostic platforms through the development of sensitive aptasensors, liquid biopsy strategies, and imaging systems based on nanomedicines. They also contribute to targeted therapy by recognizing cancer biomarkers selectively and enabling controlled drug delivery. This review presents a critical summary of advances in aptamer-based theranostics for breast cancer, addressing molecular mechanisms, structural folding, selective ligand binding, and nanomaterial interfacing. We also discuss applications in extracellular vesicle capture, cancer stem cell detection, and therapeutic conjugates, emphasizing their advantages and limitations relative to approaches based on antibodies. Overall, current advances show aptamers as emerging tools capable of democratizing precision oncology, particularly in regions where access to advanced technologies remains limited. Full article

Nanobiotechnology, defined as the application of nanotechnology in biology and medicine, refers to the use of nanometric structures to solve complex clinical problems through precise interaction at the molecular level. Nanostructures such as lipid, polymer, and metallic nanoparticles offer unique properties that enable improved therapeutic and diagnostic efficacy and the integration of diagnostic and therapeutic functions within the concept of theranostics. Major applications of nanobiotechnology include targeted drug delivery in cancer, infection, and gene therapy; advanced molecular diagnostics and biosensors; tissue engineering and regeneration; and immune system modulation through modern nanotechnology-based vaccines and immunotherapies. The clinical significance of these technologies lies in their ability to improve drug bioavailability, minimize adverse effects, increase sensitivity in early disease detection, and support personalized treatment strategies. Nanobiotechnology also contributes to the development of precision medicine by combining diagnostics and therapy within a single nanosystem. Despite promising results, significant challenges remain related to safety, biocompatibility, toxicity, and translation from laboratory studies to clinical applications. Further research is needed to standardize methods, assess the long-term health impact of nanomaterials, and develop regulatory frameworks to fully realize the potential of nanobiotechnology in medicine. Full article