AgriEngineering, Volume 6, Issue 2 (June 2024) – 41 articles

Making plant breeding programs less expensive, fast, practical, and accurate, especially for soybeans, promotes the selection of new soybean genotypes and contributes to the emergence of new varieties that are more efficient in absorbing and metabolizing nutrients. Using spectral information from soybean genotypes combined with nutritional information on secondary macronutrients can help genetic improvement programs select populations that are efficient in absorbing and metabolizing these nutrients. In addition, using machine learning algorithms to process this information makes the acquisition of superior genotypes more accurate. Therefore, the objective of the work was to verify the classification performance of soybean genotypes regarding secondary macronutrients by ML algorithms and different inputs. The experiment was conducted in the experimental area of the Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul, municipality of Chapadão do Sul, Brazil. Soybean was sown in the 2019/20 crop season, with the planting of 103 F2 soybean populations. The experimental design used was randomized blocks, with two replications. At 60 days after crop emergence (DAE), spectral images were collected with a Sensifly eBee RTK fixed-wing remotely piloted aircraft (RPA), with autonomous takeoff control, flight plan, and landing. At the reproductive stage (R1), three leaves were collected per plant to determine the macronutrients calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S) levels. The data obtained from the spectral information and the nutritional values of the genotypes in relation to Ca, Mg, and S were subjected to a Pearson correlation analysis; a PC analysis was carried out with a k-means algorithm to divide the genotypes into clusters. The clusters were taken as output variables, while the spectral data were used as input variables for the classification models in the machine learning analyses. The configurations tested in the models were spectral bands (SBs), vegetation indices (VIs), and a combination of both. The combination of machine learning algorithms with spectral data can provide important biological information about soybean plants. The classification of soybean genotypes according to calcium, magnesium, and sulfur content can maximize time, effort, and labor in field evaluations in genetic improvement programs. Therefore, the use of spectral bands as input data in random forest algorithms makes the process of classifying soybean genotypes in terms of secondary macronutrients efficient and important for researchers in the field. Full article

This study examined using peanut shells, rice husks, and cocoa husks as soil conditioners to boost yields in Allium cepa var. Alvara onions. Three types of biochar and four application rates (1%, 1.5%, 3%, and 5%) were compared to a control with no biochar. The biochars had different nutrient makeups, with cocoa husk biochar (CHB) containing the most essential elements. While overall plant growth (height, leaves, and roots) was not significantly affected (p > 0.05) by any biochar type compared to the control, some plant parts responded differently. CHB (5%) and peanut husk biochar (PHB) (1%) yielded the tallest onion plants (71 and 65 cm), while 1% rice and cocoa biochar resulted in the shortest (below 42 cm). PHB (3% and 5%) produced the longest roots (9 cm), while 1.5% rice husk biochar (RHB) had the shortest. Biochar application had no significant effect on leaf count. However, specific application rates of RHB and PHB increased the harvest index (HI), indicating more efficient yield allocation. HI values > 0.85 were obtained with specific biochar rates (e.g., 1.0–1.5% PHB, 1.5–5% RHB, or 5.0% CHB). Full article

Between 20 and 30% of the feedstock delivered cost is the highway hauling. In order to achieve maximum truck productivity, and thus minimize hauling cost, the hauling technology needs to provide for rapid loading and unloading. Three prototype technologies have been proposed to address the hauling issue. The first was developed by Stinger to secure a load of large rectangular bales, and it is identified as the Advanced Load Securing System (ALSS). For this study, the ALSS technology is applied on two trailers hooked in tandem (ALSS-2) loaded with 20 bales each. The second technology (Cable), is a cable system for securing a load of bales (round or rectangular) on a standard flatbed trailer. With the third technology (Rack), bales are loaded into a 20-bale rack at an SSL, and this rack is unloaded as a unit at the biorefinery. Bales remain in the rack until processed, thus avoiding single-bale handling at the receiving facility. A cost comparison, which begins with bales in single-layer ambient storage in SSLs and ends with bales in single file on a conveyor into the biorefinery, was done for the three hauling technologies paired with three load-out technologies. Cost for the nine options ranged from 48.56 USD/Mg (11 load-outs, Cable hauling) to 34.90 USD/Mg (8 loads-outs, ALSS-2 hauling). The most significant cost issue was the reduction in truck cost; 25.54 USD/Mg (20 trucks, Cable) and 15.15 USD/Mg (10 trucks, Rack). Full article

Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) may aid the design of barn ventilation systems by simulating indoor cattle thermal welfare. In the literature, CFD models of mechanically and naturally ventilated barns are proposed separately. Hybrid ventilation relies on cross effects between air change mechanisms that cannot be studied using existing models. The objective of this study was to develop a CFD methodology for modelling animal thermal comfort in hybrid ventilated barns. To check the capability of CFD as a design evaluation tool, a real case study (with exhaust blowers) and an alternative roof layout (with ridge gaps) were simulated in summer and winter weather. Typical phenomena of natural and mechanical ventilation were considered: buoyancy, solar radiation, and wind together with high-speed fans and exhaust blowers. Cattle thermal load was determined from a daily animal energy balance, and the assessment of thermal welfare was performed using thermohygrometric indexes. Results highlight that the current ventilation layout ensures adequate thermal welfare on average, despite large nonuniformity between stalls. The predicted intensity of heat stress was successfully compared with experimental measurements of heavy breathing duration. Results show strong interactions between natural and mechanical ventilation, underlining the need for an integrated simulation methodology. Full article

Garlic cultivation in tropical regions, such as the Brazilian Cerrado, faces the problem of secondary growth in the field induced by climatic conditions, which affects bulb quality and value. Clove essential oil (CEO) contains high levels of eugenol, which has the potential as an eco-friendly plant growth retardant (PGR) capable of reducing or inhibiting the secondary growth of bulbs in garlic cultivation. In this study, field experiments were carried out in two consecutive years (winter 2021 and 2022), spraying garlic plants with different concentrations of emulsion of CEO (0.0, 0.2, and 0.4%) in the differentiation phase; for comparison, the effects of water deficit, a prevalent agricultural technique in the region, were also evaluated. At a dose of 0.4%, the CEO reduced the prevalence of secondary growth and split bulbs without affecting yield. The mode of action of PGR was investigated by analyzing photosynthetic, enzymatic, and metabolomic parameters. The plants reduced amylolytic activity, and the photosynthetic parameters, after 7 days, were restored in both treatments. The analysis of the metabolomic profile of garlic leaves revealed changes in the pathways associated with the biosynthesis of fatty acids, wax, cutin, and suberin in plants treated with CEO, indicating possible damage to the surface coating of the leaf. Full article

Herbivore-induced plant organic volatiles (HIPVs) have recently been studied to improve biological pest control. In contrast, the effects of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that are not induced by herbivory (non-HIPVs) have received less attention. The latter are essential in the first stages of crop colonization by entomophagous insects (predators and parasitoids) used in biological pest control programs. Furthermore, the effects on entomophagous insects of different cultivars of a cultivated botanical species have not been studied. The aim of this work was to study the different non-HIPVs found in 10 tomato cultivars used in tomato greenhouses on two entomophages: the egg parasitoid Trichogramma achaeae (Hymenoptera, Trichogrammatidae) and the zoo-phytophagous predator Nesidiocoris tenuis (Hemiptera, Miridae). The results indicate that although there is considerable quantitative and qualitative variation in the emission of VOCs in the 10 tomato cultivars analysed, this variability made it difficult to determine the influence of the volatiles on the attraction of the predatory species N. tenuis, with only one cultivar (Rebelion) exhibiting a significantly higher attractiveness than the rest of the cultivars. For the parasitoid T. achaeae, these same volatiles had a significant effect (in part) on parasitoid behaviour. However, this attraction was not reflected in the discriminant analysis, at least for the volatiles analysed. The analysis showed four groups of well-differentiated cultivars, according to the non-HIPV composition, and this bore no relation to the levels of attractiveness registered in the different cultivars, with the exception again of the Rebelion cultivar, which seems not to be very attractive for the parasitoid and its parasitism activity. The implications of non-herbivore-induced (non-HPV) VOCs in the biological control of greenhouse pest species are described and discussed. Full article

The livestock industry is undergoing significant transformation with the integration of intelligent technologies aimed at enhancing productivity, welfare, and sustainability. This review explores the latest advancements in intelligent systemization (IS), including real-time monitoring, machine learning (ML), and the Internet of Things (IoT), and their impacts on livestock farming. The aim of this study is to provide a comprehensive overview of how these technologies can address industry challenges by improving animal health, optimizing resource use, and promoting sustainable practices. The methods involve an extensive review of the current literature and case studies on intelligent monitoring, data analytics, automation in feeding and climate control, and renewable energy integration. The results indicate that IS enhances livestock well-being through real-time health monitoring and early disease detection, optimizes feeding efficiency, and reduces operational costs through automation. Furthermore, these technologies contribute to environmental sustainability by minimizing waste and reducing the ecological footprint of livestock farming. This study highlights the transformative potential of intelligent technologies in creating a more efficient, humane, and sustainable livestock industry. Full article

 The article presents factors influencing the germination and development of plants after seeding with disk seeders. Schemes of improved two-disk seeders are proposed, forces acting on the improved seeder during operation, determination of the maximum distance between the seeder disks at the field surface level, and calculation schemes for determining the draft resistance of the serial and improved seeders, the area of the flat disk segment of the seeder, determination of the deformer, and tailstock area of the pressing plate. During the theoretical study of the seeding process, the following parameters and observations were obtained: analytical dependencies of soil density created by the pressing plate; geometric parameters of the pressing plate with a curvature radius r = 52…57 mm, plate section thickness of 2.5 mm; installation of the pressing plate insignificantly increases the draft resistance of the seeder; and the depth of the seeder’s travel has the greatest influence on spring deformation. Experimental studies reveal that the stiffness of the pressing plate is 7500…7600 N/m, ensuring an optimal furrow bottom density of 1.1–1.3 g/cm³; in the range of seed embedding depth of 0.05…0.07 m, 89% of the total number of seeds are placed compared to 76% of seeds embedded by the serial seeder. Full article

Over the last two decades, a considerable amount of equipment has been acquired (spreaders, seeders, sprayers, among others) to respond to the challenges of the precision agriculture (PA) concept. Most of this equipment has been purchased at a high cost. However, many of them, despite still being functional and equipped with sensors, actuators, and electronic processing units capable of adjusting to variations in speed, have become obsolete in terms of communication and incompatible with new monitoring and control systems based on the “Isobus” protocol. This work aims to present a solution for updating the control system (“Ferticontrol”) of a “Vicon RS-EDW” spreader with variable rate application (VRA), making it compatible with the “InCommand” system from “Ag Leader”. The solution includes serial protocol mediation using low-cost tools such as “Arduino” and “Raspberry Pi” microcontrollers and open-source software. The development shows that it is possible to implement a solution that is accessible to farmers in general. It also provides a niche business opportunity for young researchers to set up small technology-based enterprises associated with universities and research centers. These partnerships guarantee permanent innovation and represent a decisive step towards modern, technological, competitive, and sustainable agriculture. Full article

This paper presents a machine learning (ML)-based approach for the intelligent control of Autonomous Vehicles (AVs) utilized in solar panel cleaning systems, aiming to mitigate challenges arising from uncertainties, disturbances, and dynamic environments. Solar panels, predominantly situated in dedicated lands for solar energy production (e.g., agricultural solar farms), are susceptible to dust and debris accumulation, leading to diminished energy absorption. Instead of labor-intensive manual cleaning, robotic cleaners offer a viable solution. AVs equipped to transport and precisely position these cleaning robots are indispensable for the efficient navigation among solar panel arrays. However, environmental obstacles (e.g., rough terrain), variations in solar panel installation (e.g., height disparities, different angles), and uncertainties (e.g., AV and environmental modeling) may degrade the performance of traditional controllers. In this study, a biologically inspired method based on Brain Emotional Learning (BEL) is developed to tackle the aforementioned challenges. The developed controller is implemented numerically using MATLAB-SIMULINK. The paper concludes with a comparative analysis of the AVs’ performance using both PID and developed controllers across various scenarios, highlighting the efficacy and advantages of the intelligent control approach for AVs deployed in solar panel cleaning systems within agricultural solar farms. Simulation results demonstrate the superior performance of the ML-based controller, showcasing significant improvements over the PID controller. Full article

This systematic review was conducted to describe and discuss the main research findings available in the literature concerning the health and thermal comfort of dairy cattle housed in Compost-Bedded Pack Barn (CBP) systems, in comparison to Free Stall (FS), Tie-Stall (TS), and/or Loose Housing (LH) systems. Searches for peer-reviewed experimental articles in English were performed in the Scopus and Web of Science databases. Forty-three non-duplicated scientific articles were obtained and subjected to a four-stage evaluation process, according to the PRISMA methodology and predefined eligibility criteria. This process resulted in the selection of 13 articles for inclusion. Regarding animal health, the results provide evidence that the incidence of problems such as lameness, limb injuries, and reproductive disorders is lower in CBP systems. However, if bedding management is not effective in ensuring the provision of dry and comfortable surfaces, an increase in somatic cell count (SCC) and prevalence of mastitis incidence (P_MI) may occur. For thermal comfort, it was found that the CBP system exhibited higher temperatures during summer and lower temperatures during winter when compared to FS with cross-ventilation in association with evaporative cooling. However, no differences were observed in terms of thermal comfort in spring and autumn. As this is a recent research area, caution should be exercised when extrapolating the results, considering the specificities of each cited study. Full article

This paper deals with the problem of predetermining the spray angle and uniformity of the flat fan sprayer with a semicircular impact surface for the intra-soil application of liquid mineral fertilizers. The jet impact on a round splash plate and radial atomization properties are investigated theoretically, the formation features of the spray with an obtuse angle are studied in a geometrical way, and the design search of the nozzle shape and optimization calculations are performed using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations and then verified experimentally. It was revealed that the spray rate and spray angle can be adjusted by changing the parameter s, and when the spray angle is within s = 0–0.2 mm, it forms spray angles with range of 140°–175°. The spraying angle, in turn, shows the potential length of the tillage knife in accordance with the undersoil cavity dimensions. A spray uniformity of up to 74% was achieved, which is sufficient for applied studies and for intra-soil application operations. According to the investigations and field experiments, it can be concluded that the designed nozzle is applicable for the intra-soil application of liquid mineral fertilizers. The use of flat fan nozzles that form a spraying band under the soil cavity and along the entire length of the tillage knife ensures a highly efficient mixing process, the liquid mineral fertilizers with treated soil (particles) positively contributing to plant maturation. Full article

Numerical investigations on the flowability of pulverized biomass are crucial for agriculture, aiding in optimizing biomass use, crop residue management, soil health improvement, and environmental impact mitigation. Rising interest in biomass and conversion processes necessitates deeper property understanding and technological process optimization. Moisture content is a key parameter influencing biomass quality. In this paper, computer simulations of shear tests depending on the moisture content using the discrete element method were carried out and compared with experimental results. An experimental study and modeling for Jenike’s direct shearing apparatus was carried out. A swelling bed model was proposed to account for the effect of moisture. The swelling bed model assumed an increase in biomass grain vorticity proportional to the moisture content. The model was solved using the discrete element method (DEM). The model considers the effect of moisture on the values of Young’s and Kirchoff’s moduli for biomass grains. The model assumed that moisture is not present in surface form, the total amount of moisture is absorbed into the interior of the material grains, and the volume of a single grain increases linearly with an increase in the volume of the absorbed moisture. The tested materials were pulverized sunflower husks, apple pomace, distiller’s dried grains with solubles (DDGS), meat and bone meal (MBM), and sawdust. Samples with moisture contents of 0%, 10%, 20%, and 30% were tested. The best agreement of the model with the experimental data was observed for the most absorbent materials in which moisture was not present in surface form, such as apple pomace, DDGS, and sawdust. Research data are important for the proper design of biomass storage, transportation equipment, and utilization as feedstock for bioenergy production or soil enrichment. Full article

Environmental control in greenhouse horticulture is essential for providing optimal conditions for plant growth and achieving greater productivity and quality. To develop appropriate environmental management practices for greenhouse horticulture through sensing technologies for monitoring the environmental stress responses of plants in real time, we evaluated the relative value of the stomatal opening to develop a technology that continuously monitors stomatal aperture to determine the moisture status of plants. When plants suffer from water stress, the stomatal conductance of leaves decreases, and transpiration and photosynthesis are suppressed. Therefore, monitoring stomatal behavior is important for controlling plant growth. In this study, a method for simply monitoring stomatal conductance was developed based on the heat balance method. The stomatal opening index (SOI) was derived from heat balance equations on intact tomato leaves, wet reference leaves, and dry reference leaves by measuring their temperatures in a growth chamber and a greenhouse. The SOI can be approximated as the ratio of the conductance of the intact leaf to the conductance of the wet reference leaf, which varies from 0 to 1. Leaf temperatures were measured with infrared thermometry. The theoretically and experimentally established SOI was verified with tomato plants grown hydroponically in a greenhouse. The SOI derived by this method was consistent with the leaf conductance measured via the porometer method, which is a standard method for evaluating actual leaf conductance that mainly consists of stomatal conductance. In conclusion, the SOI for the continuous monitoring of stomatal behavior will be useful not only for studies on interactions between plants and the environment but also for environmental management, such as watering at plant production sites. Full article

In the business of growing and selling ornamental plants, it is important to keep track of plants from nursery to distribution. Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology provides an easier tracking method for inventories of plants by attaching tags with unique identifiers. Due to the vast area of most nurseries, there is a need to have an efficient method of scanning RFID tags. This paper investigates the use of drones and RFID, specifically, the effects of RFID reader power and flight altitude on tag counts. The experimental setup evaluated three RFID reader power levels (15 dBm, 20 dBm, and 27 dBm), three flight altitudes (3 m, 5 m, and 7 m), the number of passes (one or two), and two plant types (‘Green Giant’ arborvitae and ‘Sky Pencil’ holly). For RFID tags, four types were used (L5, L6, L8, and L9), with two antenna types (dog-bone and square-wave) and two attachment types (loop-lock and stake). For each power level, the UAV was flown to three different altitudes of 3 m, 5 m, and 7 m above the ground. At each altitude, two scan passes were performed at a constant speed of approximately 1.5 m/s. Each plot of plants (two in total) was randomly tagged with a total of 40 RFID tags per plot. Field data were collected from September to December 2023 (on a total of eight dates). The data showed that a power level of 15 dBm and an altitude of 3 m yielded a tag count of 53%, while counts of 34% and 16% were achieved at 5 m and 7 m, respectively. At 20 dBm and an altitude of 3 m, the count accuracy across all tag types and both plants was 90%. When the altitude was increased to 5 m and 7 m, tag-count accuracy dropped to 75% and 33%, respectively. The highest count accuracy was observed at 27 dBm and an altitude of 3 m, with a reading accuracy of 98%. Tag types L6 and L9 performed better at any power level and altitude, while L5 and L8 performed well at a higher power level and lower altitude. In this experiment, canopy properties (size and shape) had no effect on the number of tags read. This study aimed to evaluate the RFID power and UAV altitude achieving the highest accuracy in scanning the RFID tags. Furthermore, it also assessed the effects of plant growth on the scanning efficiency and accuracy of the system. Full article

Hemp, commonly known as Cannabis sativa L., is a medicinal plant species of the Cannabaceae family. For the efficient extraction of C. sativa leaves using the conventional stirring process with water as the solvent, three crucial extraction parameters (i.e., extraction duration, liquid–solid ratio, and temperature) were investigated through the response surface methodology (RSM). The concentrations of the extracted bioactive compounds (polyphenols, ascorbic acid, and carotenoids) showed significant variations in the RSM design points, suggesting the importance of finding the optimal extraction conditions in which liquid–solid ratio and extraction temperature were found to have the highest impact. Further analysis was conducted on the optimal extract employing several assays to determine their polyphenol content, total carotenoid content, color evaluation, anti-inflammatory activity, and antioxidant capacity through FRAP, DPPH, and H₂O₂ assays. A low extraction time (30 min) at 50 °C and a high liquid–solid ratio (50:1) were required for the highest possible yield of polyphenols. The total polyphenol content was determined to be 9.76 mg gallic acid equivalents/g under optimum conditions, with pelargonin being the most abundant polyphenol (1.51 mg/g) in C. sativa extracts. Ascorbic acid was measured at 282.23 μg/g and total carotenoids at 356.98 μg/g. Correlation analyses revealed that anti-inflammatory activity was negatively correlated with specific polyphenols. As determined by DPPH (27.43 μmol ascorbic acid equivalents (AAE)/g), FRAP (49.79 μmol AAE/g), and H₂O₂ (230.95 μmol AAE/g) assays, the optimized aqueous extract showed a high antioxidant capacity. Furthermore, it demonstrated considerable anti-inflammatory activity at 17.89%, with the potential to increase to 75.12% under particular extraction conditions. Given the high added-value of the aqueous extracts, the results of this study highlight the potential utility of C. sativa leaves as a source of health-improving antioxidant compounds in the pharmaceutical and food industries. Full article

Cyanobacteria are microorganisms that grow rapidly in an aquatic medium, showing the capacity of accumulations of biocompounds subsequently converted into value-added biocompounds. The cyanobacterium Spirulina maxima can produce pigments besides accumulating significant amounts of carbohydrates and proteins. An alternative to reducing biomass production costs at an industrial scale is the use of landfill leachate in the growing medium, as well as the mitigation of this pollutant. The objective of this work was to cultivate Spirulina maxima in a medium supplemented with leachate, using the design of experiments to evaluate the effects of leachate concentration (% v/v), light source, and light intensity in an airlift photobioreactor, analyzing them as a response to the productivity of biomass, phycocyanin, carbohydrates, and biochar. The highest values of productivity (mg L⁻¹d⁻¹) were 97.44 ± 3.20, 12.82 ± 0.38, 6.19 ± 1.54, and 34.79 ± 3.62 for biomass, carbohydrates, phycocyanin, and biochar, respectively, adjusted for experiment 2 with the factors of leachate concentration (5.0% v/v), light source (tubular LED), and luminosity (54 µmol m⁻² s⁻¹), respectively. The use of leachate as a substitute for macronutrients in Zarrouk’s medium for the cultivation of Spirulina maxima is a viable alternative in the production of biocompounds as long as it is used at an appropriate level. Full article

The performance of the no-till seeder is one of the most important factors that affect the success of the no-tillage. Striking the right balance between furrow opener design and residue cover is essential for optimizing seeding conditions and ensuring sustainable agricultural practices that promote both soil conservation and high-yield crop production. This study investigates the impact of residue cover on no-tillage maize seeding after wheat harvest, focusing on plant spacing, seeding depth, mean emergence time, and percent emergence. Trials with hoe-type and double-disc-type furrow openers, accompanied by plain- or ripple-disc-type coulters, were conducted in Antalya, Turkey. The results indicate that residue cover had no significant effect on mean plant spacing, but a higher residue cover increased spacing variation. The seeding depth in hoe-type furrow opener trials remained consistent, while double-disc-type furrow openers showed lower depths with 80% and 90% residue covers. The percentage of plant emergence and mean emergence time decreased as the residue cover increased in double-disc-type furrow opener trials. At 90% residue cover, PE decreased to 60%. The impact of disc coulters on hoe-type furrow openers was limited, but they increased seeding depth and MET in double-disc-type furrow openers. These findings can help optimize residue management for improved efficiency in no-till farming systems. Full article

The Robotics Vision Lab of Northwest Nazarene University has developed the Orchard Robot (OrBot), which was designed for harvesting fruits. OrBot is composed of a machine vision system to locate fruits on the tree, a robotic manipulator to approach the target fruit, and a gripper to remove the target fruit. Field trials conducted at commercial orchards for apples and peaches during the harvesting season of 2021 yielded a harvesting success rate of about 85% and had an average harvesting cycle time of 12 s. Building upon this success, the goal of this study is to evaluate the performance of OrBot during nighttime harvesting. The idea is to have OrBot harvest at night, and then human pickers continue the harvesting operation during the day. This human and robot collaboration will leverage the labor shortage issue with a relatively slower robot working at night. The specific objectives are to determine the artificial lighting parameters suitable for nighttime harvesting and to evaluate the harvesting viability of OrBot during the night. LED lighting was selected as the source for artificial illumination with a color temperature of 5600 K and 10% intensity. This combination resulted in images with the lowest noise. OrBot was tested in a commercial orchard using twenty Pink Lady apple trees. Results showed an increased success rate during the night, with OrBot gaining 94% compared to 88% during the daytime operations. Full article

Broilers are particularly sensitive to heat stress, which can impair growth, and lower conversion efficiency and survival rates. Under a climate change scenario, maintaining optimal thermal conditions within broiler houses becomes more complex and energy-intensive. Climate change can worsen air quality issues inside broiler houses by increasing the concentration of harmful gases, and proper mechanical ventilation systems are essential for diluting and removing these gases. The present study aimed to develop and validate a model for the ideal broiler housing strategy by applying the Paraconsistent Annotated Evidential Logic Eτ. A database from four broiler houses in a commercial farm, rearing 157,700 birds from the 1st to the 42nd day of growth, was used in the research. All environmental data were recorded weekly inside the houses, and on day 42, flock mortality, overall feed-to-gain ratio, and body weight were calculated and registered. The Cohen’s Kappa statistics for each environmental parameter classification compared to the paraconsistent classification. Results indicated that temperature shows good agreement, relative humidity shows slight agreement, air velocity presents a good agreement, CO₂ concentration has a slight agreement, and NH₃ concentration is classified by slight agreement. The environmental and productivity variables as a function of the broiler age using the extreme True paraconsistent state indicate the model validation. The paraconsistent analysis presented the ideal scenario for broilers’ growth, maintaining the environmental variables level within a particular threshold and providing greater profit to broiler farmers. Full article

Accurate feeding management in aquaculture relies on assessing the average weight of aquatic animals during their growth stages. The traditional method involves using a labor-intensive approach and may impact the well-being of fish. The current research focuses on a unique way of estimating red tilapia’s weight in cage culture via a river, which employs unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) and deep learning techniques. The described approach includes taking pictures by means of a UAV and then applying deep learning and machine learning algorithms to them, such as convolutional neural networks (CNNs), extreme gradient boosting (XGBoost), and a Hybrid CNN-XGBoost model. The results showed that the CNN model achieved its accuracy peak after 60 epochs, showing accuracy, precision, recall, and F1 score values of 0.748 ± 0.019, 0.750 ± 0.019, 0.740 ± 0.014, and 0.740 ± 0.019, respectively. The XGBoost reached its accuracy peak with 45 n_estimators, recording values of approximately 0.560 ± 0.000 for accuracy and 0.550 ± 0.000 for precision, recall, and F1. Regarding the Hybrid CNN-XGBoost model, it demonstrated its prediction accuracy using both 45 epochs and n_estimators. The accuracy value was around 0.760 ± 0.019, precision was 0.762 ± 0.019, recall was 0.754 ± 0.019, and F1 was 0.752 ± 0.019. The Hybrid CNN-XGBoost model demonstrated the highest accuracy compared to using standalone CNN and XGBoost models and could reduce the time required for weight estimation by around 11.81% compared to using the standalone CNN. Although the testing results may be lower than those from previous laboratory studies, this discrepancy is attributed to the real-world testing conditions in aquaculture settings, which involve uncontrollable factors. To enhance accuracy, we recommend increasing the sample size of images and extending the data collection period to cover one year. This approach allows for a comprehensive understanding of the seasonal effects on evaluation outcomes. Full article

The effect of coating a flat blade surface with titanium nitride nano coatings (TiN), nano tantalum carbide (TaC), Fiberglass (Glass Fiber-Reinforced Polymer) (GFRP), Galvanized Steel (GAS), and St37 (SST37) was investigated in order to decrease the adhesion of soil on tilling tools, external friction and, ultimately, the draft force. The soil tank, which was filled with soil of the desired conditions, was pulled on the bearing on the rail. A S-shaped load cell was used to measure the draft force. Tests were conducted at a distance of 2 m and speeds of 0.1, 0.2, and 0.3 m·s⁻¹ at a depth of 10 cm. A model based on input factors, including blade travel speed, rake angle, and cohesion and adhesion of soil–blade, was developed in an adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS), and draft force was the output parameter. To verify the performance of the developed model using ANFIS, a relative error(ε) of 6.1% and coefficient of determination (R²) of 0.956 were computed. It was found that blades coated with Nano (TiN-TaC), due to its hydrophobic surface, flatness, and self-cleaning properties, have considerable ability to decrease adhesion in wet soils and showed a linear relationship with draft force reduction. Full article

The need to use environmentally friendly substances in agriculture for pest control has become increasingly urgent in recent years. This was generated by humanity’s awareness of the harmful effects of chemicals with increased persistence, which accumulated in nature and harmed living beings. Essential oils are among the most important biopesticides and could significantly contribute to the expansion of ecological agriculture, replacing traditional methods. However, for judicious use, it is necessary to have a thorough knowledge of the mechanisms by which these oils act on both harmful and useful insects. An important step in transitioning from theory to practice is adapting essential oil application technologies for open fields, overcoming the difficulties created by their high volatility and low remanence, which results in a rapid reduction in the toxic effect. The review proposes an in-depth, up-to-date analysis of the existing literature on these subjects, aiming to provide researchers with some potential future study directions and practitioners with a solid base of information regarding the interaction between insects and essential oils. Full article

Agricultural expansion and intensification worldwide has caused a reduction in ecological infrastructures for insects, herbaceous plants, and vertebrate insectivores, among other organisms. Agriculture is recognized as one of the key influences in biodiversity decline, and initiatives such as the European Green Deal highlight the need to reduce ecosystem degradation. Among fruit crops, grapes are considered one of the most intensive agricultural systems with the greatest economic relevance. This study presents a compilation of management practices to enhance biodiversity performance, which applies generally to the agricultural sector and, in particular, to viticulture, concerning the diversity of plants, semi-natural habitats, soil management, and the chemical control strategies and pesticides used in agricultural cultivation. Through a critical review, this study identifies a set of recommendations for biodiversity performance and their corresponding effects, contributing to the dissemination of management options to boost biodiversity performance. The results highlight opportunities for future investigations in determining the needed conditions to ensure both biodiversity enhancement and productive gains, and understanding the long-term effects of innovative biodiversity-friendly approaches. Full article

The proposal for a method of identifying the occurrence of desertification that has a strong association with in situ data leads to more assertive results when analysing the contribution of climate and social and economic factors to advancing the process. This study aimed to develop a methodology called the RisDes_Index to evaluate the evolution of the desertification process based on satellite data. The concept of the RisDes_Index method was based on the reflectance variables of the R, B and G bands, albedo and LAI of the Landsat 5/TM and Landsat 8/OLI satellites. Principal component analysis was used to assess the biophysical basis of the RisDes_Index by associating the results with micrometeorological data, physical and chemical properties, and vegetation cover data collected from five experimental sites in the semi-arid region of Brazil. These sites included one from a seasonally dry forest (i.e., the Caatinga), an agricultural cactus plantation, an area undergoing desertification, and two irrigated sugarcane crops (wetlands), one with and one without straw cover. The RisDes_Index was applied to all pixels of the images from 5 December 1991, 14 November 2001, 20 November 2009 and 6 October 2016 of an important desertification nucleus (DN) in the semi-arid region of Brazil, i.e., the DN of Cabrobó. The proposed RisDes_Index was able to identify areas with significant processes of desertification, which mainly occur in areas of sandy, acidic, bare soils with a high β value (Bowen ratio) and high soil temperature. The results of the RisDes_Index showed that in 5 December 1991, desertified areas comprised 38% of the total area of the DN of Cabrobó, expanding to 51% in 2016. Application of the RisDes_Index confirmed the advance of desertification in the DN of Cabrobó. This was due to a consequent increase in the water deficit and intensified deforestation to increase the areas of livestock farming. The RisDes_Index proved to be a robust method, as its estimation based on simple satellite products exhibited a strong association with biophysical variables of areas with different land uses and degradation levels. Thus, it is suggested that the RisDes_Index be applied in various regions of the world, with the idea of directing action to meet the advance of desertification. Full article

Chrysanthemums, a significant genus within the Asteraceae, hold a paramount position in the global floricultural industry, second only to roses in market demand. The proliferation of diverse chrysanthemum cultivars presents a formidable challenge for accurate identification, exacerbated by the abundance of varieties, intricate floral structures, diverse floret types, and complex genetic profiles. Precise recognition of chrysanthemum phenotypes is indispensable to navigating these complexities. Traditional methods, including morphology studies, statistical analyses, and molecular markers, have fallen short due to their manual nature and time-intensive processes. This study presents an innovative solution employing deep learning techniques for image-based chrysanthemum phenotype recognition. Leveraging machine learning, our system autonomously extracts key features from chrysanthemum images, converting morphological data into accessible two-dimensional representations. We utilized Support Vector Machine (SVM) and Multilayer Perceptron (MLP) algorithms to construct frameworks for processing image data and classifying chrysanthemum cultivars based on color, shape, and texture. Experimental results, encompassing 10 cultivars, 10 flower colors, and five flower shapes, consistently demonstrated recognition accuracy ranging from 79.29% up to 97.86%. This tool promises streamlined identification of flower traits, and we anticipate its potential for real-time identification enhancements in future iterations, promising advances in chrysanthemum cultivation and exportation processes. Our approach offers a novel and efficient means to address the challenges posed by the vast diversity within chrysanthemum species, facilitating improved management, breeding, and marketing strategies in the floricultural industry. Full article

Knowledge of how certain crops respond to water stress is one of the prerequisites for choosing the best variety and best management practices to maximize crop water productivity (WP_c). The selection of a more efficient protocol for managing irrigation depths throughout the cultivation cycle and in the maturation process at the end of the growth period for each sugarcane variety can maximize bioethanol productivity and WP_c for bioethanol, sugar and biomass, in addition to the total energy captured by the sugarcane canopy in the form of dry biomass. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of four irrigation depths and four water deficit intensities on the maturation phase for eight sugarcane varieties under drip irrigation, analyzing the responses related to WP_c for bioethanol, sugar and biomass. These experiments were conducted at the University of São Paulo. The plots were positioned in three randomized blocks, and the treatments were distributed in a factorial scheme (4 × 8 × 4). The treatments involved eight commercial varieties of sugarcane and included four water replacement levels and four water deficits of increasing intensity in the final phase of the crop season. It was found that for each variety of sugarcane, there was an optimal combination of irrigation management strategies throughout the cycle and during the maturation process. The RB966928 variety resulted in the best industrial bioethanol yield (68.7 L·Mg⁻¹), WP_c for bioethanol (0.97 L·m⁻³) and WP_c for sugar (1.71 kg·m⁻³). The energy of the aerial parts partitioned as sugar had a direct positive correlation with the availability of water in the soil for all varieties. The RB931011 variety showed the greatest potential for converting water into shoots with an energy of 1.58 GJ·ha⁻¹·mm⁻¹, while the NCo376 variety had the lowest potential at 1.32 GJ·ha⁻¹·mm⁻¹. The productivity of first-generation bioethanol had the highest values per unit of planted area for the greatest water volumes applied and transpired by each variety; this justifies keeping soil moisture at field capacity until harvesting time only for WR100 water replacement level with a maximum ethanol potential of 13.27 m³·ha⁻¹. Full article

Monitoring crop height during different growth stages provides farmers with valuable information important for managing and improving expected yields. The use of synthetic aperture radar Sentinel-1 (S-1) and Optical Sentinel-2 (S-2) satellites provides useful datasets that can assist in monitoring crop development. However, studies exploring synergetic use of SAR S-1 and optical S-2 satellite data for monitoring crop biophysical parameters are limited. We utilized a time-series of monthly S-1 satellite data independently and then used S-1 and S-2 satellite data synergistically to model wheat-crop height in this study. The polarization backscatter bands, S-1 polarization indices, and S-2 spectral indices were computed from the datasets. Optimized Random Forest Regression (RFR), Support Vector Machine Regression (SVMR), Decision Tree Regression (DTR), and Neural Network Regression (NNR) machine-learning algorithms were applied. The findings show that RFR (R² = 0.56, RMSE = 21.01 cm) and SVM (R² = 0.58, RMSE = 20.41 cm) produce a low modeling accuracy for crop height estimation with S-1 SAR data. The S-1 and S-2 satellite data fusion experiment had an improvement in accuracy with the RFR (R² = 0.93 and RMSE = 8.53 cm) model outperforming the SVM (R² = 0.91 and RMSE = 9.20 cm) and other models. Normalized polarization (Pol) and the radar vegetation index (RVI_S1) were important predictor variables for crop height retrieval compared to other variables with S-1 and S-2 data fusion as input features. The SAR ratio index (SAR RI 2) had a strong positive and significant correlation (r = 0.94; p < 0.05) with crop height amongst the predictor variables. The spatial distribution maps generated in this study show the viability of data fusion to produce accurate crop height variability maps with machine-learning algorithms. These results demonstrate that both RFR and SVM can be used to quantify crop height during the growing stages. Furthermore, findings show that data fusion improves model performance significantly. The framework from this study can be used as a tool to retrieve other wheat biophysical variables and support decision making for different crops. Full article

In breeding programs, the demand for high-throughput phenotyping is substantial as it serves as a crucial tool for enhancing technological sophistication and efficiency. This advanced approach to phenotyping enables the rapid and precise measurement of complex traits. Therefore, the objective of this study was to estimate the correlation between vegetation indices (VIs) and grain yield and to identify the optimal timing for accurately estimating yield. Furthermore, this study aims to employ photographic quantification to measure the characteristics of corn ears and establish their correlation with corn grain yield. Ten corn hybrids were evaluated in a Complete Randomized Block (CRB) design with three replications across three locations. Vegetation and green leaf area indices were estimated throughout the growing cycle using an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) and were subsequently correlated with grain yield. The experiments consistently exhibited high levels of experimental quality across different locations, characterized by both high accuracy and low coefficients of variation. The experimental quality was consistently significant across all sites, with accuracy ranging from 79.07% to 95.94%. UAV flights conducted at the beginning of the crop cycle revealed a positive correlation between grain yield and the evaluated vegetation indices. However, a positive correlation with yield was observed at the V5 vegetative growth stage in Lavras and Ijaci, as well as at the V8 stage in Nazareno. In terms of corn ear phenotyping, the regression coefficients for ear width, length, and total number of grains (TNG) were 0.92, 0.88, and 0.62, respectively, demonstrating a strong association with manual measurements. The use of imaging for ear phenotyping is promising as a method for measuring corn components. It also enables the identification of the optimal timing to accurately estimate corn grain yield, leading to advancements in the agricultural imaging sector by streamlining the process of estimating corn production. Full article

A floating greenhouse for growing oyster mushrooms can be operated remotely via a mobile phone. This innovative system can enhance mushroom production and quality while saving time. By using the Android OS operating system on a mobile phone (Internet Mobile Device with Android OS, MGT Model: T10), users can adjust the humidity and temperature within the greenhouse. This approach is particularly beneficial for older adults. Create a smart floating greenhouse that can be controlled remotely to cultivate oyster mushrooms. It would help to enhance the quality of the mushrooms, reduce the time required for cultivation, and increase the yield per planting area. We carefully examined the specifications and proceeded to create a greenhouse that could float. In addition, we have developed a unit that could control temperature and humidity, a solar cell unit, and a rack for growing mushrooms. Our greenhouses were operated remotely. To determine the best conditions for growing plants in a floating greenhouse, we conducted a test to measure temperature and humidity. We then compared our findings to those of a traditional greenhouse test and determined the optimal parameters for floating greenhouse growth. These parameters include growth time, temperature, humidity, and weight. A mushroom nursery that can be controlled remotely and floats on water consists of four main components: a structure to regulate temperature and humidity, solar cells, and mushroom racks. Research shows that mushrooms grown under this automated control system grow better than those grown through traditional methods. The harvest period is shorter, and the yield is higher than the typical yield of 1.81–1.22. When considering the construction and use of remote-controlled floating mushroom nurseries, the daily weight of mushrooms accounted for 20.22%. The company’s investment return rates were found to be 3.47 years, or 580.21 h per year, which is higher than the yield of traditional methods. This mobile phone remote control system, created by Arduino, is tailor-made for cutting-edge floating greenhouses that grow grey oyster mushrooms. It can be operated with ease via mobile devices and is especially user-friendly for elderly individuals. This system enables farmers to produce a high volume of quality breeds. Furthermore, those with fish ponds can utilize the system to increase their profits. Full article