Journal Description
Pathogens
Pathogens
is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on pathogens and pathogen-host interactions published monthly online by MDPI.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), PubMed, PMC, Embase, PubAg, CaPlus / SciFinder, AGRIS, and other databases.
- Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Microbiology) / CiteScore - Q2 (General Immunology and Microbiology)
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 16.4 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.6 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2023).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
- Companion journals for Pathogens include: Parasitologia, Bacteria and Zoonotic Diseases.
Impact Factor:
3.7 (2022);
5-Year Impact Factor:
3.7 (2022)
Latest Articles
High Prevalence of Virulence-Associated Genes and Length Polymorphism in actA and inlB Genes Identified in Listeria monocytogenes Isolates from Meat Products and Meat-Processing Environments in Poland
Pathogens 2024, 13(6), 444; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13060444 (registering DOI) - 23 May 2024
Abstract
Listeria monocytogenes is a human pathogen that has the ability to cause listeriosis, a disease with possible fatal outcomes. The typical route of infection is ingestion of the bacteria with contaminated food. In this study, 13 virulence-associated genes were examined with PCR in
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Listeria monocytogenes is a human pathogen that has the ability to cause listeriosis, a disease with possible fatal outcomes. The typical route of infection is ingestion of the bacteria with contaminated food. In this study, 13 virulence-associated genes were examined with PCR in the genomes of 153 L. monocytogenes isolates collected from meat products and processing environments in Poland. All isolates possessed genes from LIPI-1—hly, actA, plcA, plcB and mpl—as well as four internalins: inlA, inlB, inlC, inlJ. Invasion-associated protein iap, as well as genes prfA and sigB, encoding regulatory proteins, were also detected in all isolates. Gene flaA, encoding flagellin, was detected in 113 (74%) isolates. This was the only gene that was not detected in all isolates, as its presence is serotype-dependent. Gene actA showed polymorphism with longer and shorter variants in PCR amplicons. Two isolates were characterized by truncated inlB genes, lacking 141 bp in their sequence, which was confirmed by gene sequencing. All isolates were positive in hemolysis assays, proving the synthesis of functional PrfA and Hly proteins. Four genotypes of L. monocytogenes based on actA polymorphism and two genotypes based on inlB polymorphism were distinguished within the isolates’ collection.
Full article
Open AccessArticle
Endoparasite Infections in Captive Inland Bearded Dragons (Pogona vitticeps) in Italy
by
Lisa Guardone, Alessandro Marigliano, Francesca Mancianti and Stefania Perrucci
Pathogens 2024, 13(6), 443; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13060443 (registering DOI) - 23 May 2024
Abstract
The inland bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps) is a lizard species commonly kept as a pet worldwide. Endoparasites are among the most important pathogens affecting bearded dragons. The aim of this study was to evaluate the endoparasites in captive P. vitticeps in
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The inland bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps) is a lizard species commonly kept as a pet worldwide. Endoparasites are among the most important pathogens affecting bearded dragons. The aim of this study was to evaluate the endoparasites in captive P. vitticeps in Italy. Faecal samples from 30 P. vitticeps were analysed by fresh faecal smears, flotation tests, the Mini-FLOTAC technique, and a rapid immunoassay to detect Cryptosporidium spp. To search for microsporidia, PCR and sequencing were performed on the faecal samples. Data were statistically analysed. The overall positivity rate for endoparasites was 83.3% (25/30). The identified endoparasites were oxyurids (17/30, 56.7%), Isosospora amphiboluri (13/30, 43.3%), Encephalitozoon pogonae (4/18, 22.22%), and Cryptosporidium sp. (1/30, 3.33%). The positivity for protozoa was significantly higher in juveniles compared to adults. Moreover, the frequency of clinical signs was significantly higher in the positive animals. The results obtained here emphasize the importance of regular veterinary examinations of captive P. vitticeps, aimed at the diagnosis, treatment, and control of endoparasites. This study is one of the largest surveys on microsporidia infections in living bearded dragons, suggesting that E. pogonae may be widespread in this lizard.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Research on Host–Pathogen Interaction in 2024)
Open AccessArticle
Fluorescently Tagged Verticillium dahliae to Understand the Infection Process on Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) and Weed Plant Species
by
Andrew Chen, Sabrina Morrison, Aphrika Gregson, Duy P. Le, Andrew S. Urquhart, Linda J. Smith, Elizabeth A. B. Aitken and Donald M. Gardiner
Pathogens 2024, 13(6), 442; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13060442 (registering DOI) - 23 May 2024
Abstract
Verticillium wilt is a soil-borne disease caused by distinct vegetative compatibility groups (VCG) of the fungus Verticillium dahliae. Defoliating (VCG 1A) and non-defoliating (VCG 2A) pathotypes of V. dahliae have contributed to yield losses of cotton production in Australia. To study the
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Verticillium wilt is a soil-borne disease caused by distinct vegetative compatibility groups (VCG) of the fungus Verticillium dahliae. Defoliating (VCG 1A) and non-defoliating (VCG 2A) pathotypes of V. dahliae have contributed to yield losses of cotton production in Australia. To study the virulence and the infection process of V. dahliae on cotton, two isolates, one representing each VCG, have been transformed with fluorescent protein genes. The transformants maintained their ability to infect the host, and both strains were observed to move through the plant vasculature to induce wilt symptoms. Furthermore, virulence testing suggests that the cotton V. dahliae strains can endophytically colonise common weed plant species found in the Australian landscape, and that is contrasted by their ability to infect and colonise native tobacco plants. The fluorescently labelled strains of V. dahliae not only allowed us to gain a thorough understanding of the infection process but also provided a method to rapidly identify recovered isolates from host colonisation studies.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Fungal Pathogens)
Open AccessReview
Current Progress in the Science of Novel Adjuvant Nano-Vaccine-Induced Protective Immune Responses
by
Mansab Ali Saleemi, Yan Zhang and Guoquan Zhang
Pathogens 2024, 13(6), 441; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13060441 - 23 May 2024
Abstract
Vaccinations are vital as they protect us from various illness-causing agents. Despite all the advancements in vaccine-related research, developing improved and safer vaccines against devastating infectious diseases including Ebola, tuberculosis and acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) remains a significant challenge. In addition, some
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Vaccinations are vital as they protect us from various illness-causing agents. Despite all the advancements in vaccine-related research, developing improved and safer vaccines against devastating infectious diseases including Ebola, tuberculosis and acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) remains a significant challenge. In addition, some of the current human vaccines can cause adverse reactions in some individuals, which limits their use for massive vaccination program. Therefore, it is necessary to design optimal vaccine candidates that can elicit appropriate immune responses but do not induce side effects. Subunit vaccines are relatively safe for the vaccination of humans, but they are unable to trigger an optimal protective immune response without an adjuvant. Although different types of adjuvants have been used for the formulation of vaccines to fight pathogens that have high antigenic diversity, due to the toxicity and safety issues associated with human-specific adjuvants, there are only a few adjuvants that have been approved for the formulation of human vaccines. Recently, nanoparticles (NPs) have gain specific attention and are commonly used as adjuvants for vaccine development as well as for drug delivery due to their excellent immune modulation properties. This review will focus on the current state of adjuvants in vaccine development, the mechanisms of human-compatible adjuvants and future research directions. We hope this review will provide valuable information to discovery novel adjuvants and drug delivery systems for developing novel vaccines and treatments.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Vaccines and Therapeutic Developments)
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Open AccessArticle
A PCR Test Using the Mini-PCR Platform and Simplified Product Detection Methods Is Highly Sensitive and Specific to Detect Fasciola hepatica DNA Mixed in Human Stool, Snail Tissue, and Water DNA Specimens
by
Martha V. Fernandez-Baca, Alejandro Castellanos-Gonzalez, Rodrigo A. Ore, Jose L. Alccacontor-Munoz, Cristian Hoban, Carol A. Castro, Melinda B. Tanabe, Maria L. Morales, Pedro Ortiz, A. Clinton White, Jr., Miguel M. Cabada and on behalf of the Fasciola TMRC in Peru
Pathogens 2024, 13(6), 440; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13060440 - 23 May 2024
Abstract
Fasciola hepatica has a complex lifecycle with multiple intermediate and definitive hosts and influenced by environmental factors. The disease causes significant morbidity in children and its prevalent worldwide. There is lack of data about distribution and burden of the disease in endemic regions,
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Fasciola hepatica has a complex lifecycle with multiple intermediate and definitive hosts and influenced by environmental factors. The disease causes significant morbidity in children and its prevalent worldwide. There is lack of data about distribution and burden of the disease in endemic regions, owing to poor efficacy of the different diagnostic methods used. A novel PCR-based test was developed by using a portable mini-PCR® platform to detect Fasciola sp. DNA and interpret the results via a fluorescence viewer and smartphone image analyzer application. Human stool, snail tissue, and water samples were used to extract DNA. Primers targeting the ITS-1 of the 18S rDNA gene of Fasciola sp. were used. The limit of detection of the mini-PCR test was 1 fg/μL for DNA samples diluted in water, 10 fg/μL for Fasciola/snail DNA scramble, and 100 fg/μL for Fasciola/stool DNA scramble. The product detection by agarose gel, direct visualization, and image analyses showed the same sensitivity. The Fh mini-PCR had a sensitivity and specificity equivalent to real-time PCR using the same specimens. Testing was also done on infected human stool and snail tissue successfully. These experiments demonstrated that Fh mini-PCR is as sensitive and specific as real time PCR but without the use of expensive equipment and laboratory facilities. Further testing of multiple specimens with natural infection will provide evidence for feasibility of deployment to resource constrained laboratories.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Parasite Infection and Tropical Infectious Diseases)
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Open AccessCommunication
Characterization of CRISPR-Cas Systems in Shewanella algae and Shewanella haliotis: Insights into the Adaptation and Survival of Marine Pathogens
by
Jui-Hsing Wang, Po-Tsang Huang, Yao-Ting Huang, Yan-Chiao Mao, Chung-Hsu Lai, Ting-Kuang Yeh, Chien-Hao Tseng and Chih-Chuan Kao
Pathogens 2024, 13(6), 439; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13060439 - 23 May 2024
Abstract
CRISPR-Cas systems are adaptive immune mechanisms present in most prokaryotes that play an important role in the adaptation of bacteria and archaea to new environments. Shewanella algae is a marine zoonotic pathogen with worldwide distribution, which accounts for the majority of clinical cases
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CRISPR-Cas systems are adaptive immune mechanisms present in most prokaryotes that play an important role in the adaptation of bacteria and archaea to new environments. Shewanella algae is a marine zoonotic pathogen with worldwide distribution, which accounts for the majority of clinical cases of Shewanella infections. However, the characterization of Shewanella algae CRISPR-Cas systems has not been well investigated yet. Through whole genome sequence analysis, we characterized the CRISPR-Cas systems in S. algae. Our results indicate that CRISPR-Cas systems are prevalent in S. algae, with the majority of strains containing the Type I-F system. This study provides new insights into the diversity and function of CRISPR-Cas systems in S. algae and highlights their potential role in the adaptation and survival of these marine pathogens.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Pathogens in Aquaculture)
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Open AccessReview
Plant Extract in the Control of Poultry Omphalitis
by
Gabriel da Silva Oliveira, Paula Gabriela da Silva Pires, Concepta McManus, Luana Maria de Jesus, Pedro Henrique Gomes de Sá Santos and Vinícius Machado dos Santos
Pathogens 2024, 13(6), 438; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13060438 - 23 May 2024
Abstract
Bacteria continue to disrupt poultry production and can cause resistant and persistent yolk sac infections to prevention efforts, known as omphalitis, resulting in poultry death. This literature review aims to demonstrate how plant extracts can help combat omphalitis in poultry. The Google Scholar
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Bacteria continue to disrupt poultry production and can cause resistant and persistent yolk sac infections to prevention efforts, known as omphalitis, resulting in poultry death. This literature review aims to demonstrate how plant extracts can help combat omphalitis in poultry. The Google Scholar database served as a resource for retrieving pertinent literature covering a wide range of search terms relevant to the scope of the research. The search strategy involved a combination of terms such as antimicrobials, chick embryo, omphalitis, plant extracts, poultry nutrition, and sanitization. The potential of plant extracts in preventing or treating infections in poultry, especially omphalitis, is mainly due to their antibacterial and safety properties. Sanitization and direct delivery of plant extracts to the internal contents of eggs, feed, or water are cutting-edge interventions to reduce the bacterial load in eggs and poultry, minimizing infection rates. For example, these interventions may include advanced treatment technologies or precise delivery systems focused on disease prevention in poultry.
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(This article belongs to the Section Bacterial Pathogens)
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Open AccessCommunication
Study of Macrophage Activity in Cats with FIP and Naturally FCoV-Shedding Healthy Cats
by
Sara Mangiaterra, Alessandra Gavazza, Lucia Biagini and Giacomo Rossi
Pathogens 2024, 13(6), 437; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13060437 - 22 May 2024
Abstract
Coronavirus frequently infects humans and animals, showing the ability to recombine and cross over to different species. Cats can be considered a model for studying coronavirus infection, in which feline coronavirus (FCoV) represents a major enteric pathogen related to gastroenteric disease. In this
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Coronavirus frequently infects humans and animals, showing the ability to recombine and cross over to different species. Cats can be considered a model for studying coronavirus infection, in which feline coronavirus (FCoV) represents a major enteric pathogen related to gastroenteric disease. In this animal, the virus can acquire tropism for macrophage cells, leading to a deadly disease called feline infectious peritonitis (FIP). In this study, monocyte-derived macrophages were isolated by CD14-positive selection in venous whole blood from 26 cats with FIP and 32 FCoV-positive healthy cats. Phagocytosis and respiratory burst activities were investigated and compared between the groups. This is the first study comparing macrophage activity in cats affected by FIP and healthy cats positive for FCoV infection. Our results showed that in cats with FIP, the phagocytic and respiratory burst activities were significantly lower. Our results support the possible role of host immunity in Coronaviridae pathogenesis in cats, supporting future research on the immune defense against this systemic disease.
Full article
Open AccessArticle
Antioxidant and Antifungal Properties of Cinnamon, Cloves, Melia azedarach L. and Ocimum gratissimum L. Extracts against Fusarium oxysporum Isolated from Infected Vegetables in Mauritius
by
Rajesh Jeewon, Shaan B. Pudaruth, Vishwakalyan Bhoyroo, Aadil Ahmad Aullybux, Kunhiraman C. Rajeshkumar and Abdulwahed Fahad Alrefaei
Pathogens 2024, 13(6), 436; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13060436 - 22 May 2024
Abstract
Background: Fusarium species, a group of economically destructive phytopathogens, are poorly studied in Mauritius where agriculture holds much significance. Furthermore, the increasing popularity of organic farming has prompted interest in alternatives to chemical fungicides. Methods: After gaining an overview of Fusarium prevalence in
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Background: Fusarium species, a group of economically destructive phytopathogens, are poorly studied in Mauritius where agriculture holds much significance. Furthermore, the increasing popularity of organic farming has prompted interest in alternatives to chemical fungicides. Methods: After gaining an overview of Fusarium prevalence in Mauritius fields through a survey, the pathogen was isolated from infected crops and identified based on morphological and molecular characteristics. Methanol and water extracts were then prepared from Melia azedarach, Ocimum gratissimum, cinnamon and cloves before determining their phytochemical profiles. Additionally, the antioxidant and antifungal effects of different concentrations of aqueous extracts were assessed. Results: The isolate was confirmed as Fusarium oxysporum, and cloves inhibited its growth by up to 100%, especially at 60 and 90 g/L, with the results being significantly higher than those of the synthetic fungicide mancozeb. Over 50% inhibition was also noted for cinnamon and Ocimum gratissimum, and these effects could be linked to the flavonoids, phenols and terpenoids in the extracts. Conclusion: This study presented the aqueous extracts of cloves, cinnamon and Ocimum gratissimum as potential alternatives to chemical fungicides. It also confirmed the prevalence of Fusarium infection in Mauritius fields, thereby highlighting the need for additional studies on the pathogen.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Filamentous Fungal Pathogens: 2nd Edition)
Open AccessReview
Review of Poliovirus Transmission and Economic Modeling to Support Global Polio Eradication: 2020–2024
by
Kimberly M. Thompson and Kamran Badizadegan
Pathogens 2024, 13(6), 435; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13060435 - 22 May 2024
Abstract
Continued investment in the development and application of mathematical models of poliovirus transmission, economics, and risks leads to their use in support of polio endgame strategy development and risk management policies. This study complements an earlier review covering the period 2000–2019 and discusses
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Continued investment in the development and application of mathematical models of poliovirus transmission, economics, and risks leads to their use in support of polio endgame strategy development and risk management policies. This study complements an earlier review covering the period 2000–2019 and discusses the evolution of studies published since 2020 by modeling groups supported by the Global Polio Eradication Initiative (GPEI) partners and others. We systematically review modeling papers published in English in peer-reviewed journals from 2020–2024.25 that focus on poliovirus transmission and health economic analyses. In spite of the long-anticipated end of poliovirus transmission and the GPEI sunset, which would lead to the end of its support for modeling, we find that the number of modeling groups supported by GPEI partners doubled and the rate of their publications increased. Modeling continued to play a role in supporting GPEI and national/regional policies, but changes in polio eradication governance, decentralized management and decision-making, and increased heterogeneity in modeling approaches and findings decreased the overall impact of modeling results. Meanwhile, the failure of the 2016 globally coordinated cessation of type 2 oral poliovirus vaccine use for preventive immunization and the introduction of new poliovirus vaccines and formulation, increased the complexity and uncertainty of poliovirus transmission and economic models and policy recommendations during this time.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Poliovirus)
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Open AccessReview
The Application of Rat Models in Staphylococcus aureus Infections
by
Hongyue Liang, Yadong Wang, Fang Liu, Guangcai Duan, Jinzhao Long, Yuefei Jin, Shuaiyin Chen and Haiyan Yang
Pathogens 2024, 13(6), 434; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13060434 - 21 May 2024
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is a major human pathogen and can cause a wide range of diseases, including pneumonia, osteomyelitis, skin and soft tissue infections (SSTIs), endocarditis, mastitis, bacteremia, and so forth. Rats have been widely used in the field of
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Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is a major human pathogen and can cause a wide range of diseases, including pneumonia, osteomyelitis, skin and soft tissue infections (SSTIs), endocarditis, mastitis, bacteremia, and so forth. Rats have been widely used in the field of infectious diseases due to their unique advantages, and the models of S. aureus infections have played a pivotal role in elucidating their pathogenic mechanisms and the effectiveness of therapeutic agents. This review outlined the current application of rat models in S. aureus infections and future prospects for rat models in infectious diseases caused by S. aureus.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring the Epidemiology, Pathogenicity, and Therapeutic Options of Staphylococcus spp.)
Open AccessBrief Report
The Effect of Caco-2 Cells on Sporulation and Enterotoxin Expression by Foodborne Clostridium perfringens
by
Chao Wang, Tom Defoirdt and Andreja Rajkovic
Pathogens 2024, 13(6), 433; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13060433 - 21 May 2024
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin (Cpe)-producing strains cause gastrointestinal infections in humans and account for the second-largest number of all foodborne outbreaks caused by bacterial toxins. The Cpe toxin is only produced during sporulation; this process might be affected when C. perfringens comes into contact
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Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin (Cpe)-producing strains cause gastrointestinal infections in humans and account for the second-largest number of all foodborne outbreaks caused by bacterial toxins. The Cpe toxin is only produced during sporulation; this process might be affected when C. perfringens comes into contact with host cells. The current study determined how the cpe expression levels and spore formation changed over time during co-culture with Caco-2 cells (as a model of intestinal epithelial cells). In co-culture with Caco-2 cells, total C. perfringens cell counts first decreased and then remained more or less stable, whereas spore counts were stable over the whole incubation period. The cpe mRNA level in the co-culture with Caco-2 cells increased more rapidly than in the absence of Caco-2 cells (3.9-fold higher levels in coculture than in the absence of Caco-2 cells after 8h of incubation). Finally, we found that cpe expression is inhibited by a cue released by Caco-2 cells (8.3-fold lower levels in the presence of supernatants of Caco-2 cells than in the absence of the supernatants after 10 h of incubation); as a consequence, the increased expression in co-culture with Caco-2 cells must be caused by a factor associated with the Caco-2 cells.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Bacterial Pathogens)
Open AccessArticle
Use of Matrix-Assisted and Laser Desorption/Ionization Time-of-Flight Technology in the Identification of Aeromonas Strains Isolated from Retail Sushi and Sashimi
by
Luca Nalbone, Salvatore Forgia, Federico Pirrone, Filippo Giarratana and Antonio Panebianco
Pathogens 2024, 13(6), 432; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13060432 - 21 May 2024
Abstract
Abstract: The genus Aeromonas includes well-known pathogenic species for fishes and humans that are widely distributed in the aquatic environment and foods. Nowadays, one of the main issues related to wild Aeromonas isolates is their identification at the species level, which is challenging
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Abstract: The genus Aeromonas includes well-known pathogenic species for fishes and humans that are widely distributed in the aquatic environment and foods. Nowadays, one of the main issues related to wild Aeromonas isolates is their identification at the species level, which is challenging using classical microbiological and biomolecular methods. This study aims to test MALDI-TOF MS technology in the identification of Aeromonas strains isolated from n. 60 retail sushi and sashimi boxes using an implemented version of the SARAMIS software V4.12. A total of 43 certified Aeromonas strains were used to implement the SARAMIS database by importing the spectra obtained from their identification. The original SARAMIS version (V4.12) failed to recognize 62.79% of the certified strains, while the herein-implemented version (V4.12plus) allowed the identification of all the certified strains at least to the genus level with a match of no less than 85%. Regarding the sushi and sashimi samples, Aeromonas spp. was detected in n. 18 (30%) boxes. A total of 127 colonies were identified at the species level, with A. salmonicida detected as the most prevalent species, followed by A. bestiarum and A. caviae. Based on the results of the present study, we could speculate that MALDI-TOF technology could be a useful tool both for the food industry to monitor product contamination and for clinical purposes to make diagnoses effectively and quickly.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Development and Evaluation of Detection Method for Pathogenic Bacteria from Food)
Open AccessArticle
Sodium Metabisulfite Inhibits Acanthamoeba Trophozoite Growth through Thiamine Depletion
by
Ronnie Mooney, Elisa Giammarini, Erin Corbett, Scott Thomson, Kevin McKinley, Paula Sinisterra Sebastian, Kiri Rodgers, Jana O’Donnell, Charles McGinness, Craig W. Roberts, Kanna Ramaesh and Fiona L. Henriquez
Pathogens 2024, 13(6), 431; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13060431 - 21 May 2024
Abstract
Acanthamoeba keratitis (AK) is a severe infection of the cornea. Prevention and treatment are difficult due to the inefficacy of currently available compounds. The impact of many commonly used compounds for routine examinations of Acanthamoeba is unexplored but might offer insight useful in
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Acanthamoeba keratitis (AK) is a severe infection of the cornea. Prevention and treatment are difficult due to the inefficacy of currently available compounds. The impact of many commonly used compounds for routine examinations of Acanthamoeba is unexplored but might offer insight useful in combatting AK. In this study, we demonstrate that sodium metabisulfite, a common preservation constituent of eye care solutions, was found to be active against Acanthamoeba trophozoites at concentrations lower than that commonly found in eye drops (IC50 0.03 mg/mL). We demonstrate that sodium metabisulfite depletes thiamine from growth medium and that Acanthamoeba is a thiamine auxotroph, requiring thiamine salvage for growth. The inhibitory effects of sodium metabisulfite can be overcome by thiamine supplementation. These results are consistent with the lack of key enzymes for thiamine biosynthesis in the genome of Acanthamoeba, an area which might prove exploitable using new or existing compounds. Indeed, this study highlights sodium metabisulfite as a useful inhibitor of Acanthamoeba castellanii trophozoites in vitro and that it acts, at least in part, by limiting available thiamine.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Ocular Surface Infections)
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Open AccessArticle
The Influence of Milk Leakage, Udder Pressure and Further Risk Factors on the Development of New Intramammary Infections during the Dry Period of Dairy Cows
by
Pauline Katthöfer, Yanchao Zhang, Nicole Wente, Franziska Preine, Julia Nitz and Volker Krömker
Pathogens 2024, 13(5), 430; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13050430 - 20 May 2024
Abstract
Prevention of new intramammary infection (NIMI) during the dry period (DP) is essential to prevent the development of mastitis in dairy cows. To investigate risk factors for NIMI, 212 cows, comprising a total of 848 udder quarters, were examined in this study. Quarter
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Prevention of new intramammary infection (NIMI) during the dry period (DP) is essential to prevent the development of mastitis in dairy cows. To investigate risk factors for NIMI, 212 cows, comprising a total of 848 udder quarters, were examined in this study. Quarter milk samples were taken on the day of drying off and 7 ± 3 days after calving. Cow- and quarter-level associated risk factors were assessed at the beginning of the DP and after calving. In total, 7.1% of the udder quarters developed an NIMI between the samplings. Non-aureus staphylococci (40.4%) and Gram-negative pathogens (22.8%) were most frequently the cause of NIMI. The observed milk leakage prevalence was 16.7%, with a peak 24 h after drying off. Simultaneously, the udder pressure peaked 24 h after drying off. A significant correlation between milk yield on the day before drying off and milk leakage could be proven. Cows with quarters leaking milk produced an average milk yield of 28.32 kg on the day before drying off. Generalised linear mixed models and odds ratios were calculated to determine the significant risk factors for NIMI during the DP and early lactation. Quarters leaking milk had 3.4 higher odds for NIMI between the samplings compared to quarters without milk leakage. Quarters from cows with dirty udders had 3.1 higher odds of developing an NIMI between the samplings compared to quarters from cows with clean udders. The results of this study demonstrate the importance of dry cow management before drying off and during the critical period of active involution of the udder tissue.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Mastitis in Dairy Ruminants)
Open AccessBrief Report
Kinetics of SARS-CoV-2 Viral Load in Hospitalized Patients
by
Alessandra Panico, Francesco Bagordo, Emanuela Nolasco, Tiziana Grassi, Annagrazia Bianco, Floriano Indino, Federica Taurino, Antonella De Donno and Giambattista Lobreglio
Pathogens 2024, 13(5), 429; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13050429 - 20 May 2024
Abstract
The rapid and accurate detection of infectious people is crucial in controlling outbreaks. The aim of this study was to evaluate the kinetics of the viral load expressed as Ct in COVID-19 hospitalized patients. Nasopharyngeal swab specimens were collected for RT-PCR testing. Forty-one
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The rapid and accurate detection of infectious people is crucial in controlling outbreaks. The aim of this study was to evaluate the kinetics of the viral load expressed as Ct in COVID-19 hospitalized patients. Nasopharyngeal swab specimens were collected for RT-PCR testing. Forty-one subjects were recruited, of which 48.8% developed severe symptoms and 51.2% showed milder symptoms. The distribution of Ct values measured from the symptom onset showed that the kinetics of the viral load decreased with increasing time. A Ct of 25 (high viral load) was reached after a mean of 9.9 ± 4.8 days from the symptom onset, without a significant difference between patients with severe (10.9 ± 5.7 days) and milder (9.0 ± 3.9 days) symptoms. In 65.8% of cases, a high viral load was maintained for more than 7 days from the symptom onset, especially in patients with severe symptoms (70.6%). A Ct of 30 (moderate viral load) and of 38 (low viral load) were reached after a mean of 16.1 ± 8.1 and 28.5 ± 22.4 days from the symptom onset, respectively, with a significant difference between patients with severe (Ct = 30:17.9 ± 9.8 days; Ct = 38:34.6 ± 29.6 days) and milder (Ct = 30:14.3 ± 5.8 days; Ct = 38:22.7 ± 9.9 days) symptoms. These results provide an understanding of the viral kinetics of SARS-CoV-2 and have implications for pandemic control strategies and practices.
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(This article belongs to the Collection SARS-CoV Infections)
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Genetic Diversity of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Strains Isolated from HIV-Infected Patients in Mexico
by
Daniel Valencia-Trujillo, Amanda Marineth Avila-Trejo, Rocío Liliana García-Reyes, Luis Narváez-Díaz, Mariela Segura del Pilar, Mario Alberto Mújica-Sánchez, Eduardo Becerril-Vargas, Moises León-Juárez, Mónica Maribel Mata-Miranda, Sandra Rivera-Gutiérrez and Jorge Francisco Cerna-Cortés
Pathogens 2024, 13(5), 428; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13050428 - 19 May 2024
Abstract
There has been very limited investigation regarding the genetic diversity of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTb) strains isolated from human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected patients in Mexico. In this study, we isolated 93 MTb strains from pulmonary and extrapulmonary samples of HIV-infected patients treated in a
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There has been very limited investigation regarding the genetic diversity of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTb) strains isolated from human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected patients in Mexico. In this study, we isolated 93 MTb strains from pulmonary and extrapulmonary samples of HIV-infected patients treated in a public hospital in Mexico City to evaluate the genetic diversity using spoligotyping and mycobacterial interspersed repetitive unit-variable-number tandem-repeat (MIRU-VNTR) typing (based on 24 loci). The cohort comprised 80 male and 13 female individuals. There was a positive correlation between a high HIV viral load (>100,000 copies) and extrapulmonary tuberculosis (TB) (r = 0.306, p = 0.008). Lineage 4 was the most frequent lineage (79 strains). In this lineage, we found the H clade (n = 24), including the Haarlem, H3, and H1 families; the T clade (n = 22), including T1 and T2; the X clade (n = 15), including X1 and X3; the LAM clade (n = 14), including LAM1, LAM2, LAM3, LAM6, and LAM9; the S clade (n = 2); Uganda (n = 1); and Ghana (n = 1). We also found 12 strains in the EAI clade belonging to lineage 1, including the EAI2-Manila and EAI5 families. Interestingly, we identified one strain belonging to the Beijing family, which is part of lineage 2. One strain could not be identified. This study reports high genetic diversity among MTb strains, highlighting the need for a molecular epidemiological surveillance system that can help to monitor the spread of these strains, leading to more appropriate measures for TB control in HIV-infected patients.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tuberculosis and Nontuberculous Mycobacterial Infections in the Immunocompromised Host)
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Open AccessArticle
Molecular Screening for Digital Dermatitis-Associated Treponemes in Bovine Ischaemic Teat Necrosis Lesions and Milk in Dairy Cattle
by
Hayley E. Crosby-Durrani, Stuart D. Carter, Roger W. Blowey and Nicholas J. Evans
Pathogens 2024, 13(5), 427; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13050427 - 17 May 2024
Abstract
Bovine ischaemic teat necrosis (ITN) is a disease affecting the skin of the teats of dairy cows with an unknown aetiopathogenesis. Digital dermatitis (DD)-associated treponemes have previously been suggested as a potential aetiological agent in ITN, although the sample size was small. The
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Bovine ischaemic teat necrosis (ITN) is a disease affecting the skin of the teats of dairy cows with an unknown aetiopathogenesis. Digital dermatitis (DD)-associated treponemes have previously been suggested as a potential aetiological agent in ITN, although the sample size was small. The current study, using established PCR techniques, aimed to examine the association with the presence of DD-associated treponemes in a large number of ITN samples from a wider geographical area, and surveyed the potential of milk as an infection reservoir. From 95 ITN lesions, 35.8% (n = 34) were positive for at least one DD-associated treponeme compared with only 5.6% (n = 1) of 18 non-lesioned teats from cows with ITN lesions on a different teat using a nested PCR approach. All 10 age- and production-matched control cows were negative for DD-associated treponemes via PCR. No DD-associated treponemes could be detected from foremilk of cows with (n = 19) and without (n = 31) a DD lesion on the hind feet. DD-associated treponemes could be detected via PCR after incubation in milk for up to 2 h. Therefore, milk does not appear to be a competent reservoir for transmission of DD-associated treponemes. Moreover, in the current study DD-associated treponemes were only detected in a subset of ITN samples, so it is unlikely these opportunistic skin-associated pathogens are the major or sole agent of ITN.
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(This article belongs to the Section Bacterial Pathogens)
Open AccessReview
Humans vs. Fungi: An Overview of Fungal Pathogens against Humans
by
Kasun M. Thambugala, Dinushani A. Daranagama, Danushka S. Tennakoon, Dona Pamoda W. Jayatunga, Sinang Hongsanan and Ning Xie
Pathogens 2024, 13(5), 426; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13050426 - 17 May 2024
Abstract
Human fungal diseases are infections caused by any fungus that invades human tissues, causing superficial, subcutaneous, or systemic diseases. Fungal infections that enter various human tissues and organs pose a significant threat to millions of individuals with weakened immune systems globally. Over recent
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Human fungal diseases are infections caused by any fungus that invades human tissues, causing superficial, subcutaneous, or systemic diseases. Fungal infections that enter various human tissues and organs pose a significant threat to millions of individuals with weakened immune systems globally. Over recent decades, the reported cases of invasive fungal infections have increased substantially and research progress in this field has also been rapidly boosted. This review provides a comprehensive list of human fungal pathogens extracted from over 850 recent case reports, and a summary of the relevant disease conditions and their origins. Details of 281 human fungal pathogens belonging to 12 classes and 104 genera in the divisions ascomycota, basidiomycota, entomophthoromycota, and mucoromycota are listed. Among these, Aspergillus stands out as the genus with the greatest potential of infecting humans, comprising 16 species known to infect humans. Additionally, three other genera, Curvularia, Exophiala, and Trichophyton, are recognized as significant genera, each comprising 10 or more known human pathogenic species. A phylogenetic analysis based on partial sequences of the 28S nrRNA gene (LSU) of human fungal pathogens was performed to show their phylogenetic relationships and clarify their taxonomies. In addition, this review summarizes the recent advancements in fungal disease diagnosis and therapeutics.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue An Update on Fungal Infections)
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Sex Pheromone Receptor Ste2 Orchestrates Chemotropic Growth towards Pine Root Extracts in the Pitch Canker Pathogen Fusarium circinatum
by
Jane B. Ramaswe, Emma T. Steenkamp, Lieschen De Vos, Felix F. Fru, Omotayo O. Adegeye and Brenda D. Wingfield
Pathogens 2024, 13(5), 425; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13050425 - 17 May 2024
Abstract
In ascomycetous fungi, sexual mate recognition requires interaction of the Ste2 receptor protein produced by one partner with the α-factor peptide pheromone produced by the other partner. In some fungi, Ste2 is further needed for chemotropism towards plant roots to allow for subsequent
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In ascomycetous fungi, sexual mate recognition requires interaction of the Ste2 receptor protein produced by one partner with the α-factor peptide pheromone produced by the other partner. In some fungi, Ste2 is further needed for chemotropism towards plant roots to allow for subsequent infection and colonization. Here, we investigated whether this is also true for the pine pitch canker fungus, Fusarium circinatum, which is a devastating pathogen of pine globally. Ste2 knockout mutants were generated for two opposite mating-type isolates, after which all strains were subjected to chemotropism assays involving exudates from pine seedling roots and synthetic α-factor pheromone, as well as a range of other compounds for comparison. Our data show that Ste2 is not required for chemotropism towards any of these other compounds, but, in both wild-type strains, Ste2 deletion resulted in the loss of chemotropism towards pine root exudate. Also, irrespective of mating type, both wild-type strains displayed positive chemotropism towards α-factor pheromone, which was substantially reduced in the deletion mutants and not the complementation mutants. Taken together, these findings suggest that Ste2 likely has a key role during the infection of pine roots in production nurseries. Our study also provides a strong foundation for exploring the role of self-produced and mate-produced α-factor pheromone in the growth and overall biology of the pitch canker pathogen.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fungal Pathogens of Crops)
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