Polyelectrolytes Assembly: A Powerful Tool for Electrochemical Sensing Application
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Polyelectrolytes in Layer-by-Layer (LbL) Sensor Assembling
2.1. Multilayer Film Consisting of Two Components (Layer)
2.1.1. Sensing Film Consisting of Two Alternate Deposited Layers: PE and a Sensing/Mediating/Transducing Component
Redox Mediators (Complex Compound) as a Layer
Me or MeO NPs as a Layer
Carbon-Based Nanoparticles as a Layer
DNA as a Layer
Enzyme as a Layer
2.1.2. Sensing/Mediating/Transducing Material Is Entrapped with PE and Applied as a Self-Containing Layer in a Multilayer Film Consisting of Two Alternately Deposited Layers (Repeated Bilayers)
Me or MeO NPs–PE as a Layer
Carbon-Based Nanoparticle–PE as a Layer
2.2. Multilayer Film Consisting of More Than Two Components (Layers)
2.2.1. Multilayer Film Consisting of Three or More Alternately Deposited Layers
Redox Mediators (Complex Compounds) as a Layer
DNA as a Layer
Enzyme as a Layer
2.2.2. Multilayer Film Consisting of Two or More Multilayer Films
Me and MeO NPs as a Layer
Carbon-Based Nanomaterials as a Layer
Enzyme as a Layer
2.3. Multilayer Film as a Substrate (“Precursor” Film) for Deposition of a Sensing Layer
2.3.1. Redox Mediators (Complex Compounds) in a “Precursor” Multilayer Film
2.3.2. Me or MeO NPs in a “Precursor” Multilayer Film
2.3.3. DNA in a “Precursor” Multilayer Film
2.3.4. Unmodified PEs as a “Precursor” Multilayer Film
2.4. Application of the LbL Method in Development of Various Composite Nanoparticles (Nanospheres, Hollow-Shell Particles, Reporter Probes. etc.) and Other Sensor Architectures
2.4.1. Composite Nanoparticles (Nanospheres, Hollow-Shell Particles, Reported Probes)
2.4.2. LbL Procedure in Other Sensor Architectures
3. Polyelectrolytes in Casting/Coating Methods
3.1. Sensing/Mediating/Transducing Component Is Entrapped with PE
3.1.1. Redox Mediators (Complex Compounds)–PE Composite
3.1.2. Me or MeO NPs–PE Composite
3.1.3. Carbon-Based NPs–PE Composite
3.1.4. Other–PE Composite
3.2. Sensing Films Consisting of Three or More Components
3.2.1. Sensing Film Comprising Me or MeO NPs
3.2.2. Sensing Film Comprising DNA
3.2.3. Sensing Film Comprising an Enzyme
3.3. PE in Preparation of Scaffolding Layer by Drop-Casting
3.3.1. Redox Mediators (Complex Compounds)–PE Composite
3.3.2. Me or MeO NPs–PE Composite
3.3.3. Carbon-Based Nanomaterials–PE Composite
3.3.4. Me or MeO NPs–Carbon-Based Nanomaterials–PE Composite
3.3.5. PE or PEC as a Scaffolding Layer
3.3.6. Other Uses of PE in Casting/Coating Mode
3.4. PE or PEC as Sensing Layer
3.5. Other Methods Involved in Application of PEs in Sensor Architectures
3.5.1. Electrospinning and Spin-Coating of PE onto a Working Electrode
3.5.2. PEs in Construction of Reporter Probes, Nanoprobes, etc.
4. Conclusions and Future Perspectives
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
PEs: | |
MP | carboxymethylpullulan; |
CNCC | carboxylated nanocrystalline cellulose; |
CS | chitosan; |
HA | humic acid; |
PAA(+) | poly(acrylamide); |
PAA(−) | poly(acrylic acid); |
PADA | poly[acrylamide-co-(diallyldimethylammonium chloride)]; |
PAH | poly(allylamine hydrochloride); |
PAM | polyacrylamide; |
PAMAM | poly(amidoamine) dendrimer; |
PAS | sodium poly(anethol sulphonate); |
PC | pectin; |
PDADMAC | poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride); |
PDDA | poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride); |
PEI PHD | poly(ethylenimine); poly(hydroxyethyl methacrylate-poly[2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate; |
PHEMA-b PDMAEMA PSS | poly(hydroxyethyl methacrylate; poly[2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate;poly(styrene sulphonate); |
PQ11 | poly [(2-ethyldimethylammonioethyl methacrylate ethyl sulphate)-co-(1-vinylpyrrolidone); |
PVP | poly(vinyl pyrrolidone); |
PVS | poly(vinylsulphate); |
SCS | sulphonated chitosan; |
SiPyCl | 3-n-propylpyridinium chloride silsesquioxane. |
Carbon Nanomaterials: | |
CNS | carbon nanosphere; |
CNO | carbon nano-onions; |
ErGO | electrochemically reduced graphene oxide; |
GO | graphene oxide; |
MWCNTs | multi-wall carbon nanotubes; |
rGO | reduced graphene oxide; |
SWCNTs | single-wall carbon nanotubes. |
DNA: | |
cDNA | complementary DNA; |
ssDNA | single stranded DNA. |
Enzymes: | |
AChE | acetylcholinesterase; |
ChOx | choline oxidase; |
HRP | horse radish peroxidase; |
GOx | glucose oxidase; |
LOx | lactate oxidase; |
SOD | sarcosine oxidase. |
Electrode: | |
FET | field-effect transistor; |
FTO | fluorine doped tin oxide; |
GCE | glassy carbon electrode; |
IDE | planar interdigitated electrode; |
ITO | indium tin oxide; |
SPAu | screen-printed gold electrode; |
SPCE | screen-printed carbon electrode; |
SPGE | screen-printed graphite electrode. |
Other: | |
APTES | 3-aminopropyl-triethoxysilane; |
BSA | bovine serum albumin; |
CD | cyclodextrin; |
GTH | glutaraldehyde; |
MB | methylene blue; |
MG | methylene green; |
MPA | mercaptopropionic acid; |
PANI | polyaniline; |
PB | Prussian blue; |
PEDOT | poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene); |
PSA | polystyrene-co-acrylic acid; |
SDS | sodium dodecyl sulphate; |
S-PEDOT | sulphonated poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene); |
TEOS | tetraethyl orthosilicate. |
Electroanalytical Methods: | |
AMP | amperometry; |
CV | cyclic voltammetry; |
DPASV | differential pulse anodic stripping voltammetry; |
DPV | differential pulse voltammetry; |
EIS | use of the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy; |
IMP | impedimetry; |
LSV | linear sweep voltammetry; |
POT | potentiometry; |
SWV | square-wave voltammetry |
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2.1. Multilayer Film Consisting of Two Components (Layers) | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2.1.1. PE and Sensing/Mediating/Transducing Component | ||||||||
Redox Mediators (Complex Compounds) as a Layer | ||||||||
PE(s) Used | Sensing Element | Modification Methods | Electrode/Substrate | Path Of Modification | Sensor Construction | Analyte | Analysis Method | Reference |
SiPy(+)Cl(−) | Tetra sulpho phthalocyanine NiTsPc | LbL | Indium tin oxide (ITO) | LbL: SiPy(+)-NiTsPc(−) | ITO/LbL: SiPy-NiTsPc | Dopamine | Square-wave voltamm-etry (SWV) | [32] |
Poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride) (PDDA(+)) | Copper tetra-sulphonated phthalocyanine CuPcTS | Drop-casting/LbL | Glassy carbon electrode (GCE) | Drop-casting of the CNT(−); then LbL: PDDA(+)-CuPcTS(−) | GCE/carbon nanotube (CNT)/LbL: PDDA-CuPcTS | 2-mercaptoethanol | Ampero-metry (AMP) | [33] |
Poly(ethylenimine) (PEI(+)) | Phosphotungstic acid-PTA H3PW12 O40 | LbL | ITO | LbL: PEI(+)-PTA(−) | ITO/LbL: PEI-PTA | Ascorbic acid and H2O2 | Cyclic voltamm-etry (CV) | [34] |
Poly(styrene sulphonate) (PSS(−)); Nafion®(−) | Fe(III)porphyrine Fe(III)Ph | Drop-casting/LbL | Screen-printed carbon electrode (SPCE) | Suspension of multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT)(−)@Nafion®(−) onto SPCE; then LbL: PSS(−)-Fe(III)P(+) | SPCE/MWCNT@Nafion®/LbL: PSS-Fe(III)P | Bromate | CV | [35] |
Poly(allylamine hydrochloride) (PAH(+)); PSS(−); surfactant Triton-X® | Tungstophosphate (POM) | Silanization of GCE/immersion/LbL | GCE | Silanizated GCE by treatment with Aminopropyltriethoxysilane—ATS(+); then immersion in PSS(−); than LbL: PAH(+)@Trinton-X®-POM(−) | GCE@ATS/PSS/LbL: PAH@Trinton-X®-POM | Nitrite | AMP | [36] |
Me or MeO NPs as a Layer | ||||||||
PDDA(+) | IrOxNPs (nanoparticles) | LbL | ITO | LbL by printing: PDDA(+)-IrOxNPs(−) | ITO/LbL: PDDA-IrOxNPs | pH | Potentio-metry (POT) | [37] |
Polyviologen (PV(+)) | AuNPs | LbL | Au | Au modified with 2-mercaptoethansulphonate (MESA)(−); then LbL: PV(+)-AuNPs(−) | Au@MESA/LbL: PV-AuNPs | H2O2 | AMP | [38] |
Poly ((2-ethyldimethylammonioethyl methacrylate ethyl sulphate)-co-(1-vinylpyrrolidone) (PQ11(+)) | PQ11-AgNPs | LbL | ITO | LbL: PQ11(+)-AgNPs | GCE/LbL: PQ11-AgNPs | H2O2 | AMP | [39] |
Carbon-Based Nanoparticles as a Layer | ||||||||
PDDA(+) | MWCNTs | LbL | GCE | LbL: PDDA(+)-MWCNT(−) | GCE/LbL: PDDA-MWCNT | Caffeine | Different-ial pulse voltamm-etry (DPV) | [40] |
PAH(+) | Graphene oxide (GO) | LbL | GCE | LbL: PAH(+)-GO; then reduction of GO with NaBH4 to obtain rGO. | GCE/LbL: PAH-rGO | Cu(II) | Different-ial pulse anodic stripping voltamm-etry (DPASV) | [41] |
conjugated PE: PBCSO3(−) | Reduced graphene oxide (rGO) | Electrochem. deposition/LbL | GCE | Electrochemical deposition and simultaneous reduction of graphene oxide (GO) on GCE; then LbL: PBCSO3(−)-rGO | GCE/ErGO/LbL: PBCSO3-rGO | Polycyclic AromaticHydrocarbons | DPV | [42] |
DNA as a Layer | ||||||||
PAH(+) | Single stranded DNA (ssDNA) | LbL | SiO2 | SiO2(−) at physiological pH; then LbL: poly(acrylamide) (PAH(+))-ssDNA(−) | SiO2/LbL: PAH-ssDNA | cDNA | POT | [43] |
PAH(+) | ssDNA | LbL | SiO2 | SiO2(−) at physiological pH; then LbL: PAH(+)-ssDNA(−) | SiO2/LbL: PAH-ssDNA | cDNA | Impedimetry (IMP) | [44] |
PAH(+) | ssDNA | LbL | FE chip SiO2 | LbL: PAH(+)-ssDNA(−) | FE chip/LbL: PAH-ssDNA | cDNA | Electrochemic-al imped-ance spectro-scopy (EIS) | [45] |
PAH(+) | ssDNA | LbL | FE chip SiO2 | LbL: PAH(+)-ssDNA(−) | FE chip/LbL: PAH-ssDNA | cDNA | IMP | [46] |
PAH(+); PSS(−) | DNA | Electropolymerization/LbL | GCE | Electropolymerization of Methylene green (MG) or Methylene blue (MB) onto GCE; then different architectures were applied using the LbL method:: 1. PSS-PAH; 2. DNA-PAH; 3. PSS-PAH-PSS; 4. PSS-PAH-DNA; 5. DNA-PAH-PSS. | GCE/MG or MB/LbL: DNA-PAH | DNA | IMP | [47] |
Enzyme as a Layer | ||||||||
PDDA(+); PAS(−) | Choline oxidase (ChOx) | Drop-casting/LbL | SPCE | 1. Drop-casting of the sol MnO2; then drop-casting of PDDA(+); then drop-casting of ChOx 2. Drop-casting of the sol solution of MnO2; then LbL: PDDA(+)-PAS(−); then drop-casting of ChOx 3. Drop-casting of the sol solution of MnO2; then LbL: PDDA(+)-ChOx | 1. SPCE/MnO2/PDDA/ChOx 2. SPCE/MnO2/LbL:PDDA-PAS/ChOx 3. SPCE/MnO2/LbL: PDDA-ChOx | Choline | AMP | [48] |
PEI(+) | Urease | LbL | Field-effect transistor (FET) (Si-SiO2) | glass substrate functionalized with APTES; then drop-casting of GO followed by its chemical reduction; then functionalization by SPS(−); then LbL: PEI(+)-urease(−) | FET@APTES/rGO/SPS/LbL: PEI-urease | Urea | AMP | [49] |
PAH(+) | Sarcosine oxidase (SOD) | LbL | Au | Benzenedithiol (BDT) was immobilized onto Au; then immersion of the Au electrode into Cd/Se quantum dots (Cd/SeQD) to obtain Cd/SeQD@BDT; then LbL: SOD-PAH(+) | Au@BDT/Cd/SeQD@BDT/LbL: SOD-PAH | Sarcosine | AMP-photo current | [50] |
PAH(+) | GOx | LbL | Au | immobilization of the benzenethiol functionalized CdSe/ZnQDs; then LbL: GOx-PAH(+); then GTH (cross-linking) | Au/QDs/LbL: GOx-PAH | Glucose | AMP-photo current | [51] |
Poly(amidoamine) dendrimer (PAMAM(+)); PAH(+) | Penicilase | LbL | FET (Si/SiO2) | LbL: PAMAM(+) or PAH(+)-penicilase | FET/LbL: PAMAM or PAH-penicilase | Penicillin | EIS capacitive | [52] |
2.1.2. Sensing/Mediating/Transducing Material Entrapped within PE and Used as a Self-Containing Layer | ||||||||
Me or MeO NPs–PE as a layer | ||||||||
SiPy(+)Cl(−); HA(−) | PtNPs@SiPy | LbL | Fluorine doped tin oxide (FTO) | Reduction of the PtCl6− in the presence of SiPy(+); then LbL: HA(−)-PtNPs@SiPy(+) and vice versa; | FTO/LbL: HA-PtNPs@SiP | 17α-ethynylestradiol, EE2 | DPV | [53] |
Chitosan (CS(+)); PSS(−) | Men+@CSMen+ = Cu2+, Ni2+, Ag+ | LbL | Quartz, silicon wafer; ITO | Substrate/LbL: Men+@CS(+)-PSS(−); then chemical reduction of Men+ in film | substrate/LbL: Me@CS-PSS | Glucose | CV | [54] |
PAH(+); poly(acrylic acid) (PAA(−)); | AuNPs@PAH or AuNPs@PAA | LbL | ITO | Reduction of AuCl4− with NaBH4 in the presence of the PE; then LbL onto ITO: Au NPs@PAH(+)-AuNPs@PAA(−) | ITO/LbL: AuNPs@PAH-AuNPs@PAA | Nitrite | CV | [55] |
poly(vinyl pyrrolidone) (PVP(0)); PAMAM(+) | CoFe2O4 | LbL | Chip: Al/p-Si/SiO2 | chips:Al/p-Si/SiO2; then LbL: PAMAM(+)-CoFe2O4@PVP(0) | Al/p-Si/SiO2/LbL:PAMAM-CoFe2O4 @PVP | H2O2 | IMP | [56] |
Carbon-Based NPs–PE as a Layer | ||||||||
PSS(−); PAH(+) | rGO@PSS/rGO@PAH | LbL | carbon film | LbL: rGO@PSS(−)-rGO@PAH(+) | carbon film/LbL: rGO@PSS-rGO@PAH | NO2 | Resistance | [57] |
PDDA(+) | Enzyme-AChE | LbL | GCE | LbL: Single-wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs)@PDDA(+)-AChE(−) | GCE/LbL: SWCNTs@PDDA-AChE | Carbaryl pesticide | AMP | [58] |
2.2. Multilayer Film Consisting of More Than Two Components (Layers) | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2.2.1. Multilayer Film Consisting of Three or More Alternately Deposited Layers | ||||||||
Redox Mediators (Complex Compounds) as a Layer | ||||||||
PE(s) Used | Sensing Element | Modification Methods | Electrode/Substrate | Path of Modification | Sensor Construction | Analyte | Analysis Method | Reference |
PEI(+) | NaMMT and NiTsPc | LbL | ITO | LbL: PEI(+)-MMT(−)-PEI(+)-NiTsPc | ITO/LbL: PEI-MMT-PEI-NiTsPc | Dopamine | DPV | [59] |
PAH(+); PEI(+) | PB | Drop-casting/LbL | Au | Drop-casting of PEI(+) onto Au; then LbL: rGO-PAH(+)-PB(−) | Au/PEI/LbL: rGO-PAH-PB | H2O2 | CV | [60] |
PEI(+); PAH(+) | PB | LbL | Au | LbL: PEI(+)-PB(−)-poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT):PSS-PAH(+) | Au/LbL: PEI-PB-PEDOT:PSS-PAH | H2O2 | CV | [61] |
PEI(+); PAH(+) | PB | LbL | Au | LbL: PEI(+)-PB(−)-PPy or polyaniline (PANI)-PAH(+) | Au/LbL: PEI-PB-PPy or PANI-PAH | H2O2 | CV | [62] |
PAA(−); PAM(+); PDDA(+) | MoS2@PAA or PAM | LbL | Quartz, silicon, ITO | LbL:PDDA(+)-MoS2@PAA(−)-MoS2@PAM(+)-PEDOT:PSS(−) | substrate/LbL: PDDA-MoS2@PAA-MoS2@PAM-PEDOT:PSS | H2O2 | AMP | [63] |
DNA as a Layer | ||||||||
PAH(+); PSS(−) | Methylene blue (MB) and Methylene green (MG); DNA | electropolymerization/LbL | GCE | Electropolymerization of MB or MG onto GCE; then different LbL architectures were obtained: 1. PSS-PAH; 2. DNA-PAH; 3. PSS-PAH-PSS; 4. PSS-PAH-DNA; 5. DNA-PAH-PSS. | GCE/LbL: DNA-PAH-PSS | DNA | IMP | [47] |
Enzyme as a Layer | ||||||||
PDDA(+) | LOx | LbL | Polycryst. Au (PGA) | LbL on the thiolated (MPS) PGA surface(−): PDDA(+)-AuNPs-LOx | Au@MPS/LbL: PDDA-AuNPs-LOx | L-lactate | AMP | [64] |
2.2.2. Multilayer Film Consisting of Two or More Multilayer Films | ||||||||
Me and Meo Nps as a Layer | ||||||||
Poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride) (PDADMAC(+)); PSS(−) | AuNPs | LbL | PDMS pattern channel | LbL: PDADMAC(+)-PSS(−); then LbL: PDADMAC(+)-AuNPs | PDMS pattern channel/LbL: PDADMAC-PSS/LbL: PDADMAC-AuNPs | - | Conductivity | [65] |
PDDA(+); PSS(−) | Au | LbL | ITO | Graphene nanopellets stabilized in PDDA(+) (GPDDA(+)) and PSS(−) (GPSS(−)); LbL: GPDDA(+)-GPSS(−); then LbL: AuNP(+)-GPSS(−) | ITO/LbL: GPDDA-GPSS/LbL: AuNP-GSS | Methyl parathion | DPV | [66] |
PDDA(+); PSS(−) | SiO2NPs | LbL | ISFET | LbL: PDDA(+)-PSS(−); then LbL: PDDA(+)-SWCNT(−) or In2O3NPs(−); then LbL: PDDA(+)-SiO2NPs(−) | ISFET/LbL: PDDA-PSS/LbL: PDDA-SWCNT or In2O3NPs/LbL: PDDA-SiO2NPs | pH | chemoresistance | [67] |
Carbon-Based Nanomaterials as a Layer | ||||||||
CS(+); PAH(+); PDDA(+); PSS(−) | CS@SWCNTs | LbL | SiO2 plate covered with Cr-Au | SiO2@Cr-Au; then LbL: PDDA(+)-PSS(−); then LbL: PE(+)-SWCNTs(−) | SiO2@Cr-Au/LbL: PDDA-PSS/LbL: PE-SWCNTs | pH | chemo resistance | [68] |
Enzyme as a Layer | ||||||||
PAH(+); PSS(−) | GOx | Immersion/LbL | Au | Au modified with 3-mercapto-1-propanesulphonic acid (MPS) (−); then precursor bilayer film: PAH(+)@PSS(−); then LbL: MWCNTs(−)@PAH(+)-HRP (horse radish peroxidase); then LbL: ConA (bridge between HRP and GOx)-GOx | Au@MPS/PAH@PSS/LbL: MWCNTs@PAH-HRP/LbL: ConA-GOx | Glucose | AMP | [69] |
PDDA(+); PSS(−) | SWCNTs; AChE. | LbL | SiO2/Cr/Au | LbL: PDDA(+)-PSS(−); then LbL: PDDA(+)-SWCNTs(−); then layer of the PDDA(+); then LbL: PDDA(+)-PSS-AChE | SiO2/Cr/Au/LbL: PDDA-PSS/LbL: PDDA-SWCNTs/PDDA/LbL: PSS-AChE | pH, acetylcholine | POT | [70] |
2.3. Multilayer Film as a Substrate (“Precursor” Film) for Deposition of a Sensing Layer | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2.3.1. Redox Mediators (Complex Compounds) in a “Precursor” Multilayer Film | ||||||||
PE(s) Used | Sensing Element | Modification Methods | Electrode/Substrate | Path of Modification | Sensor Construction | Analyte | Analysis Method | Reference |
PEI(+) | Aptamers (TBA; LBA) | LbL/drop-casting | ITO | LbL: Fc@PEI(+)-CNTs(−); then drop-casting of the TBA or LBA; then bovine serum albumin (BSA) (prevent non-specific adsorption) | ITO/LbL: Fc@PEI-CNTs/TBA or LBA | Thrombin lysosome | DPV | [71] |
PDDA(+); PSS(−) | Aptamer | LbL/drop-casting | ITO | LbL: MB(−)@PDDA(+)-rGO@PSS(−); then drop-casting of the aptamer; then BSA | ITO/LbL: MB@PDDA-rGO@PSS/aptamer | Chiral peptide detection | DPV | [72] |
SiPy(+)Cl(−); Nafion®(−) | GOx | LbL/drop-casting | FTO | LbL: SiPy(+)-CuTsPc(−); then adsorption of the SiPy(+); then drop-casting of the GOx; then drop-casting of the Nafion®(−); | FTO/LbL: SiPy-CuTsPc/SiPy/GOx/Nafion® | Glucose | AMP | [73] |
2.3.2. Me or MeO NPs in a “Precursor” Multilayer Film | ||||||||
PDADMAC(+); PSS(−) | GTH | LbL/drop-casting | ITO | ITO modified with PSS(−); then LbL: MWCNTs@PDADMAC(+)-AuNP; then drop-casting of the GTH | ITO/PSS/LbL: MWCNTs@PDADMAC-AuNP/GTH | Dopamine | CV | [74] |
PEI(+); PSS(−) | P2Mo17V | LbL/dip-coating | ITO | LbL: PSS(−)-PEI(+); then immersion into AuCl4− followed by reduction with NaBH4; then immersion into AgNO3 followed by reduction with asorbic acid; then dip-coating into solution of P2Mo17V@PEI(+) | ITO/ LbL: PSS-PEI/ Au@2Ag/ P2Mo17V@PEI | L-cysteine | AMP | [75] |
PSS(−); PDDA(+) | Anti-APOE-4 | LbL/electro deposition | ITO | LbL: PDDA(+)-PSS(−); then potentiostatic electrodeposition from AuCl4− to produce fractal Au (FracAu); then immobilization of anti-APOE-4 | ITO/LbL: PDDA-PSS/ FracAu/anti-APOE-4 | Protein APOE-4 | AMP | [76] |
PAH(+); PSS(−) | Au@target DNA | LbL/dip-coating | Au | immersion of the Au electrode into mercaptopropionic acid (MPA(−)); then LbL: PAH(+)-PSS(−); then chemical reduction of the AuCl4− with NaBH4 onto Au; then immobilization of DNA probe | Au@MPA/ LbL: PAH-PSS/ AuNPs/DNA | Target DNA | DPV | [77] |
2.3.3. DNA in a “Precursor” Multilayer Film | ||||||||
PAA(+); PSS(−) | Enzyme AChE | LbL/drop-casting | GCE | Drop casting of the suspension of Co-phtalocyanine (CoPc) and Carbon Black (CB); then LbL: PAA(+)-PSS(−) or PAA(+)-DNA(−); then drop-casting of AChE | GCE/CoPc@CB/LbL: PAA-PSS or PAA-DNA/AChE | Huperzine A and galantamine | AMP | [78] |
2.3.4. Unmodified PEs as a “Precursor” Multilayer Film | ||||||||
PAA(+); PSS(−) | AChE | Drop casting/LbL/drop-casting | GCE | Drop-casting of suspension of the Co-phtalocyanine (CoPc) and Carbon Black (CB) onto GCE; then LbL: PAA(+)-PSS(−); then drop-casting of AChE | GCE/CoPh@CB/LbL: PAA-PSS/AChE | Donepezil and berberine | Measurement of anodic current | [79] |
PDDA(+); PAS(−) | Choline oxidase (ChOx) | Drop-casting/LbL/drop-casting | SPCE | 1. Drop-casting of the sol solution of MnO2; then drop-casting of PDDA(+); then drop-casting of ChOx 2. Drop-casting of the sol solution of MnO2; then LbL: PDDA(+)-PAS(−); then drop-casting of ChOx 3. Drop-casting of the sol solution of MnO2; then LbL: PDDA(+)-ChOx | 1. SPCE/MnO2/PDDA(+)/ChOx 2. SPCE/MnO2/LbL: PDDA-PAS(−)/ChOx 3. SPCE/MnO2/LbL: PDDA-ChOx | Choline | AMP | [48] |
Polysaccharide: CS(+); carboxymethylpullulan CMP(−) | Urease | LbL/ adsorption or covalent immobilization of enzyme | Carbon | PANI(−) electropolymerized over graphite; then LbL: CS(+)-CMP(−); then drop-cast or covalent immobilization of urease (via carbodiimide reaction) | C/PANI/LbL: CS-CMP/enzyme | Urea | POT | [80] |
CMP(−); CS(+) | Urease and PEC | LbL/covalent immob. of enzyme | SPCE | Electropolymerized PANI over SPCE; then LbL: CMP(−)-CS(+); then covalent grafting via carbodiimide reaction of urease onto CMP | SPCE/LbL: CMP-CS/urease | pH and urea | POT | [81] |
PDDA(+); PSS(−); Nafion® | GOx | LbL/dip-coating | ITO | ZnONRs or NPs deposited onto ITO; then LbL: PSS(−)-PDDA(+); then dip-coating of GOx; then Nafion® | ITO/ZnO NRs or NPs/ LbL: PSS-PDDA/ GOx/Nafion® | Glucose | AMP | [82] |
2.4. LbL Method in Development of Various Composite Nanoparticles and Other Sensor Architectures | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2.4.1. Composite Nanoparticles (Nanospheres, Hollow-Shell Particles, Reporter Probes) | ||||||||
PE(s) Used | Sensing Element | Modification Methods | Electrode/Substrate | Path Of Modification | Sensor Construction | Analyte | Analysis Method | Reference |
PAH(+); PSS(−) | Streptavidin/ AgNP-tagged carbon nanosphere (CNSs) | LbL | Au; CNS | Reporter probe: LbL onto CNS: PAH(+)-PSS(−); then in solution of Ag+ and citrate; then into streptavidin. | CNS/LbL: PAH-PSS/ AgNPs/streptavidin | DNA | Linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) | [83] |
PAA(+); PSS(−) | SPE | LbL | SPE | LbL: Hollow shall PAA(+)-PSS(−) capsules loaded with Au(III) followed by reduction to obtain AuNPs@PAA(+)-PSS(−); magnetic Fe3O4 covered with APTES and polystyrene-co-acrylic acid (PSA(−)) latex particles (Fe3O4@APTES(+)@PSA(−)); then attachment of alkaline phosphatase (AP) labeled anti-DIG onto Fe3O4@APTES(+)@PSA(−); bonding of AuNPs@PAA-PSS and AP labeled anti-DIG @Fe3O4@APTES@PSA via Au-S bond | AP labeled anti-DIG@ Fe3O4@APTES@PSA@ AuNPs@PAA-PSS; magnetic collection; dissolution and determination | DIG (DNA) | DPSAV | [84] |
PAH(+): PEI(+); PAA(−); PSS(−) | AChE and HRP | LbL/drop-casting | SPCE | LbL on the PSS(−) (as template): PAH(+)-PAA(−) or PEI(+)-PAA(−); then immobilization of enzyme onto polyelectrolyte sphere by mixing it into enzyme solution; then drop-casting onto SPCE | SPCE/LbL onto PSS: PAA-PAA or PEI-PAA/HRP or AChE | Pesticide and H2O2 | AMP | [85] |
PAH(+); PSS(−) | CdTeQD | LbL | GPTMS | Reporter probe: LbL onto polystyrene-co-acrylic acid (PSA) particles incubated with PAH(+)-PSS(−); then adding of CdTeQD onto PSA@PAH(+)-PSS(−); then conjugation of streptavidin onto PSA@PAH(+)-PSS(−)@CdTeQD; then electrostatic adsorption; then covered with BSA | PSA/LbL: PAH-PSS/CdTeQD/streptavidin | Target DNA | SWV | [86] |
PAA(+); PSS(−) | DNA probe | LbL/adsorption | SPCE | Reporter probe: LbL onto polystyrene-co-acrylic acid (PSA) particles with PAA(+)-PSS(−); then adding of colloid AuNPs; then conjugation of DNA probe onto AuNPs; then electrostatic adsorption | PSA/LbL: PSS-PAA/AuNP/DNA | Target DNA | DPASV | [87] |
2.4.2. LbL Procedure in Other Sensor Architectures | ||||||||
PAH(+); PSS(−) | Proteus mirabilis bacteria | LbL/drop-casting | Si/SiO2 | LbL on AuNPs: PAH(+)-PSS(−); then drop-casting onto Si/SiO2; then drop-casting of bacteria; then cross-linking with GSH | Si/SiO2/AuNPs@LbL: PAH-PSS/bacteria | Urea | POT | [88] |
M13 phage(−); PEI(+) | GOx | LbL | SPAu | LbL on the cellulose acetate polymeric membrane by dialysis: SWCNTs@M13(−)-GOx@PEI(+); then wet contact-transfer-print onto SPAu | SPAu/LbL: SWCNTs@M13-GOx@PEI | Glucose | AMP | [89] |
CMP(−); CS(+) | Urease | LbL/electropolymerization | SPCE | electropolymerization of PANI(+) on GCE; then immobilization of urease; then LbL: CMP(−)-CS(+); | GCE/PANI/urease/LbL: CMP-CS | Urea | POT | [90] |
PDDA(+); CNNC(−) | PEDOT | LbL/electropolymerization | GCE | LbL: electrodeposition of PDDA(+)-then immersion into CNNC(−); then electrochemical polymerization of EDOT | GCE/LbL: PDDA-CNNC/PEDOT | Nitrite | AMP | [91] |
3.1. Sensing/Mediating/Transducing Component is Entrapped with PE | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
3.1.1. Redox Mediators (Complex Compounds)–PE Composite | ||||||||
PE(s) Used | Sensing Element | Modification Methods | Electrode/Substrate | Path of Modification | Sensor Construction | Analyte | Analysis Method | Reference |
PDMDAAC (+) | Fe(CN)63−/4− | Dip-coating | ITO | Dip-coating of the solution of PDMDAAC(+)@Fe(CN)63−/4− | ITO/PDMDAAC@Fe(CN)63−/4− | Water in organic solvents | IMP | [92] |
PAH(+); PSS(−); CS(+) | Fe(CN)63−/4− | Drop-casting | GCE | Drop-casting of the suspension of prepared porous material: CaCO3@PSS(−)@PAH(+)@Fe(CN)63−/4−@CS(+) | GCE/CaCO3@PSS@PAH@Fe(CN)63−/4−@CS | Ascorbic acid | AMP | [93] |
PSS(−); Nafion®(−) | Ferrocenium (Fe(C10H10+) | Drop-casting | GCE | ferrocenium ion entangled and extracted with Nafion® or PSS(−); then drop-casting of the Fe(C10H10+)(+)@Nafion®(−) or Fe(C10H10+)(+)@PSS(−) | GCE/Fe(C10H10+)@Nafion® or Fe(C10H10+)@PSS | Nitrite | CV | [94] |
3.1.2. Me or MeO NPs–PE Composite | ||||||||
PADA(+) | AgNP | Drop-casting | GCE | Mixing solutions of PADA(+), TPDT (as reducing agent) and Ag+ to obtain PADA(+)@AgNP@TPDT; then drop-casting onto GCE | GCE/PADA@Ag@TPDT | H2O2 and 4-nitroaniline | SWV and LSV | [95] |
PAA(+) sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS(−)) surfactant | AgNP | Drop-casting | SPGE | solution of the AgNP and SDS (surfactant) (e.g., AgNP@SDS(−)) and PAA(+); then drop-casting onto SPGE | SPGE/AgNP@SDS@PAA | Thiourea | SWV | [96] |
PADA(+) | PADA@Au50 Ag50NCs | Drop-casting | GCE | Drop-casting of solution of the bi-metallic Au/Ag nanoclusters embedded in PDDA(+): PADA(+)@Au50Ag50NCs | GCE/PADA@Au50Ag50NCs | NO | AMP | [97] |
3.1.3. Carbon-Based NPs–PE Composite | ||||||||
CS(+) | MWCNTs | Drop-casting | Au | Drop-casting suspension of MWCNTs@CS(+) onto Au | Au/MWCNTs@CS | Humidity | resistivity | [98] |
PEDOT-S(−) (sulphonated PEDOT) | PEDOT-S@ MWCNTs | Drop-casting | GCE | Drop-casting of the suspension of the PEDOT-S(−)@MWCNTs onto GCE | GCE/PEDOT-S@MWCNTs | Nitrobenzenes | DPV;SWV | [99] |
PHEMA-b-PDMAEMA(PHD(+)) | MWCNTs@ PHD | Drop-casting | GCE | Drop-casting of the suspension of MWCNTs@PHD(+) onto GCE | GCE/MWCNTs@PHD | Bisphenol-A | AMP | [100] |
PDDA(+) | Carbon nano-onions (CNO) | Drop-casting | GCE | Drop-casting of the suspension of CNO@PDDA(+) onto GCE | GCE/CNO@PDDA | Dopamine | DPV;SWV | [101] |
Nafion® (−) | MWCNTs@ Nafion® | Drop-casting | GCE | drop-casting of MWCNTs(−)@ Nafion®(−) onto GCE | GCE/MWCNTs@Nafion® | Pb, Cd | DPASV | [102] |
PDDA(+) | rGO@PDDA | Drop-casting | GCE | Drop-casting of the suspension of rGO@PDDA(+) onto GCE | GCE/MWCNTs@PDDA | 4-Nitrophenol | LSV | [103] |
PDDA(+); PSS(−) | GO@PDDA or rGO@PSS | Dip-coating | Au | Dip-coating of the rGO@PDDA(+) or rGO@PSS(−) onto Au | Au/rGO@PDDA or rGO@PSS | Humidity | IMP | [104] |
3.1.4 Other–PE Composite | ||||||||
Cellulose sulphate (−); sodium alginate (−); poly(methylene-co-guanidine (+) | Cell entrapped in PEC membrane | Attach | Oxygen electrode | Suspension of biomass into solution of PEC; obtained gel placed onto oxygen electrode | Oxygen electrode/cell@PEC | Biotransformation based on Baeyer–Villiger oxidation-CBCH | AMP | [105] |
3.2 Sensing Film Consisting of Three or More Components | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
3.2.1. Sensing Film Comprising Me or MeO NPs | ||||||||
PE(s) Used | Sensing Element | Modification Methods | Electrode/Substrate | Path of Modification | Sensor Construction | Analyte | Analysis Method | Reference |
PDDA(+) | rGO@PDDA@ PtNPs | Drop-casting | GCE | Drop-casting of the rGO *@PDDA(+)@PtNPs onto GCE * rGO—graphene sheets | GCE/Gr@PDDA@Pt | Gallic acid | DPV | [106] |
PSS(−) | rGO@PSS@ PdNP | Drop-casting | GCE | Drop-casting of the suspension of graphene rGO *@PSS(−)@PdNP * rGO—graphene | GCE/Gr@PSS@PdNP | Amaranth | DPV | [107] |
PEI(+) | MWCNTs@ PEI@AuNP | Drop-casting | Au | Drop-casting of MWCNTs(−)@PEI(+)@AuNP | Au/MWCNTs@PEI@AuNP | Dopamine | DPV | [108] |
PDDA(+) | rGO@PDDA@ | Drop-casting | GCE | Reduction of the GO with PDDA(+); then addition of Au(III) in the rGO solution and reduction of Au(III) with PDDA(+); then drop-casting of the suspension of rGO@PDDA(+)@AuNP onto GCE | GCE/rGO@PDDA@AuNP | Aminophenol isomers | DPV | [109] |
PDDMAC (+); Nafion® | Carbon ink@ Nafion®@AuNPs | Drop-casting | GCE | Electrodeposition of AuNPs from AuCl4− and PDDMAC(+); drop-casting of the carbon ink@Nafion®(−)@AuNPs | GCE/carbon ink@ Nafion®@AuNPs | Dopamine | CV | [110] |
3.2.2. Sensing Film Comprising DNA | ||||||||
PAA(+); PSS(−) | DNA | Electropolym./Drop-casting | GCE | Electropolymerization of Neutral Red (NR) or PANI onto GCE; then drop casting of TC@PAA(+) or PSS(−)@DNA(−) | GCE/NR or PANI/TC@PAA or PSS@DNA | Doxorubicin | IMP | [111] |
3.2.3 Sensing Film Comprising an Enzyme | ||||||||
PAA(+); PEI(+); PAM(−) | GOx | Drop-casting | GCE | Entrapping of the ferrocene (Fc) with PE; then preparation of hybrid composite GO@MWCNTs@PE@Fc@GOx; then drop-casting of the GO@MWCNTs@PE@Fc@GOx | GCE/GO@MWCNTs@PE@Fc@GOx | Glucose | AMP | [112] |
CS(+); kappa-carrageenan (−) | GOx | Drop-casting | Au | GOx encapsuled in PEC (CS(+)@kappa-carrageenan(−)); then mixed with AuNPs to obtain AuNPs@PEC@GOx; then drop-casting of the AuNPs@PEC@GOx onto Au | GCE/Au/AuNPs@PEC@GOx | Glucose | SWV | [113] |
PDDA(+) | microperoxidase-11 (MP-11) | Drop-casting | GCE | Graphene@PDDA(+) mixed with AuNPs@DMPG 1,2-Dimyristoyl-sn-gly-cero-3-phosphatidil glycerol (DMPG) to obtain graphen@PDDA(+)@AuNPs@DMPG; then mixed with MP-11; then drop-casting onto GCE | GCE/graphen@PDDA/AuNPs@DMPG@MP-11 | H2O2 | CV | [114] |
PAH(+) | GOx | Drop-casting | planar interdigitated electrode (IDE) | nanoparticles were coated with an initial layer of PAH; then dispersion of the PAH(+)@NPs into GOx; then Drop-casting of NPs@PAH(+)@GOx onto IDEs; then cross-linking in the vapor of GTH | IDE/NPs@PAH@GOx | Glucose | conductometry | [115] |
SPAnNa(−) | HRP | Drop-casting | Au | poly[aniline-co-sodium N-(1-one-butyric acid) aniline]-zinc oxide (SPAnNa@ZnO) mixed with HRP; then drop-cast onto Au | Au/SPAnNa@ZnO@HRP | H2O2 | AMP | [116] |
Conjugated PEs: P3TOPS(−); aPPE(−); | GOx | Drop-casting | GCE | Preparation of complex (by mixing) of the SWCNTs, GOx and P3TOPS (−) or PPE(−); then drop-casting onto GCE | GCE/SWCNTs@PE@GOx | Glucose | AMP | [117] |
PDDA(+) | AChE | Drop-casting | SPCE | GO and AuCl4− chemically reduced with NaBH4 in the presence of PDDA(+); then AuNPs@PDDA@rGO mixed with AChE; then drop-cast onto SPCE | SPCE/AuNPs@PDDA@rGO@AChE | Paraoxone | AMP | [118] |
PAH(+) | GOx | Drop-casting | ITO | SiO2NFs coated with PAH(+); then immersion into AuCl4− followed by reduction by NaBH4; then mixing with GOx, L-cysteine and GTH; then immobilization onto ITO | ITO/SiO2@PAH@AuNPs@L-cysteine@GOx | Glucose | CV | [119] |
PHEMA-b-PDMAEMA (PHD(+)) | hemoglobin | Drop-casting | GCE | Drop-casting of the Hb@PHD(+)@MWCNTs GCE | GCE/Hb@PHD@MWCNTs | H2O2 | AMP | [120] |
3.3. PE in Preparation of Scaffolding Layer by Drop-Casting | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
3.3.1. Redox Mediators (Complex Compounds)–PE Composite | ||||||||
PE(s) Used | Sensing Element | Modification Methods | Electrode/Substrate | Path of Modification | Sensor Construction | Analyte | Analysis Method | Reference |
PAA(+); dodecyl sulphate (DS(−)) as surfactant | PB | Drop-casting/electrodeposition | Graphite; ITO | Drop-casting of the PAA(+)@DS(−) onto electrode; then electrodeposition of the PB | Graphite or ITO/PAA@DS/PB | H2O2 | AMP | [121] |
PAA(+) derivatized with pyridine Os complex (PAO(+)); SDS (−) as surfactants | GOx | Drop-casting | Graphite | Precipitation of PAO(+) and SDS(−); then solution of PAO(+)@SDS(−) in dimethylformamide DMF onto G electrode; then drop-casting of GOx | Graphite/PAO@SDS/GOx | Glucose | CV | [122] |
3.3.2. Me or MeO NPs–PE Composite | ||||||||
silsesquioxane polymer SiPy(+)Cl(−) | HRP | Drop-casting | GCE | Drop-casting of the suspension of AuNPs stabilized with SiPy(+) onto GCE; then TLA (thiolactic acid); then immobilization of HRP via carbodiimide reaction (EDC/NHS) | GCE/AuNPs@SiPy/TLA/HRP | Catechol | DPV | [123] |
3.3.3. Carbon-Based Nanomaterials–PE Composite | ||||||||
Nafion®(−) | MWCNTs @ M(II)Ph; M = Zn, Co, Ni | Drop-coating/dip-coating | GCE | drop-coating of the solution of Nafion®(−) onto GCE; than in Nafion®(−)@MWCNTs; then in suspension of M(II)Ph(+)@Nafion®(−) | GCE/Nafion®@MWCNTs/M(II)Ph@Nafion® | H2O2 | AMP | [124] |
3.3.4. Me or MeO NPs–Carbon-Based Nanomaterials–PE Composite | ||||||||
PDDA(+); PEI(+) | GOx and LOD | Drop-casting | Dual GCE | Drop-casting of the dispersion of the Pt@PDDA(+)@carbon mesoporous material (CMM) onto GCE; then drop-casting of the GOx and LOD@PEI(+); then cross-linking with GTH | GCE/Pt@PDDA@CMM/GOx or LOD@PEI | Glucose and L-lactate | AMP | [125] |
PDDA (+) | Aptamer | Drop-casting | GCE | Drop-casting of the suspension of rGO@PDDA(+)@AgNP; then drop of solution of aptamer | GCE/rGO@PDDA@AgNP/aptamer | Chloramphenicol | LSV | [126] |
PDDA(+) | HRP | Drop-casting | GCE | Graphene modified with PDDA(+); then electrostatic interaction with PtCl62-; then PtCl62- microwave reduction; then drop-casting of the composite rGO@PDDA@PtNPs onto GCE; then drop-casting of the HRP | GCE/rGO@PDDA@PtNPs/HRP | H2O2 | CV | [127] |
PDDA(+) | rGO@PDDA(+)@PtNP | Drop-casting | SiO2/Ti or Au film | drop-casting of the rGO@PDDA(+) onto substrate; then immersion in the PtCl6− followed by reduction of adsorbed Pt(IV) into PtNP by ascorbic acid | SiO2/Ti or Au film/rGO@PDDA@PtNP | Ascorbic acid (AA) dopamine (DA) and uric acid (UA) | AMP | [128] |
CS(+) | Ab1 | Drop-casting | GCE | drop-casting of the graphene@CS(+) onto GCE; then immersion of electrode in AuCl4− followed by electroreduction; then drop-casting of Ab1 (anti-body) | GCE/graphene@CS@AuNPs/Ab1 | Prolactin | DPV | [129] |
PDDA(+) | Aptamer | Drop-casting | GCE | GO@PDDA(+) into AuCl4− followed by chemical reduction to obtain GO@PDDA(+)@AuNPs; then drop-casting onto GCE; then incubation in aptamer solution | GCE/GO@PDDA@AuNPs/ssDNA | cDNA | SWV | [130] |
PDDA(+); CS(+) | dsDNA | Dip-coating | PGE (pencil graphite electrode) | Various modification paths. Example: The PGEs were immersed into a suspension containing MWCNTs, TiO2NPs dispersed in PDDA(+); the electrodes were dipped into the dsDNA | PGE/MWCNTs@TiO2NPs@PDDA/dsDNA | Guanine and adenine | DPV | [131] |
3.3.5. PE or PEC as a Scaffolding Layer | ||||||||
PLL(+); Indigo tetra sulphonate (ITS)(−) | PLL(+)@GTH/ITS (−) | Drop-casting/electrodeposition | GCE | Drop-casting of the solution PLL(+)@GTH (as cross-linker) onto GCE; then electrodeposition of ITS(−) | GCE/PLL@GTH/ITS | Oxygen | RDE voltammetry | [132] |
PSS(−); PEI(+) | Acridine orange (AO) | Dip-coating | GCE | Dip-coating of PEI(+); then dip-coating of PSS(−); then dip-coating AO(+) | GCE/PEI/PSS/AO | CTAB(−) | AMP | [133] |
PAA(+) | CMWCNTs-AMWCNTs bonded via carbodiimide ester bond | Dip-coating/LbL | GCE | Dip-coating of GCE into PAA(+); then LbL: CMWCNTs-AMWCNTs/then EDC/NHS to form carbodiimide ester NOTE: AMWCNTs: MWNTs functionalized with amino terminated silanes (APS) CMWCNT: carboxylated MWCNT | GCE/PAA/LbL: CMWCNTs-AMWCNTs | NADH | AMP | [134] |
3.3.6 Other Uses of PE in Casting/Coating Mode | ||||||||
Nafion®(−); PAH(+) | Bienzymesensor: FFMNSs@PAH@MP11/GOx | Drop-casting | GCE | FF-MNSs modified with PAH(+) and MP11 to obtain FFMNSs@PAH(+)@MP11; then drop-casting onto GCE; then drop-casting GOx/then Nafion®(−); | GCE/FFMNSs@PAH@MP11/GOx/Nafion® | Glucose | AMP | [135] |
3.4. PE or PEC as a Sensing Layer | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PE(s) Used | Sensing Element | Modification Methods | Electrode/Substrate | Path of Modification | Sensor Construction | Analyte | Analysis Method | Reference |
CS(+); Pectin(−) (PC) | CS@PC | Drop-casting | GCE | Dispersion of biopolymer polyelectrolyte complex (CS(+)@PC(−)) | GCE/CS@PC | Metronidazole and metribuzin | DPV | [136] |
CS(+); Sulphonated CS(−) (SCS) | Cyclodextrin (CD) | Drop-casting | GCE | Homogenous solution of the of CS(+)@SCS(−)@CD onto GCE | GCE/CS@SCS and GCE/CS@SCS@CD | Atenolol | DPV | [137] |
PDADMAC (+); CS-Cellulose sulphate(−) | PDMDAAC@CS | Sequential drop-casting | GCE | Sequential drop-casting of the PDADMAC(+) solution and CS(−) solution onto GCE | GCE/PDADMAC@CS | Nitrite | DPV | [138] |
PAA(+); surfactant SDS(−) | SDS@PAA | Drop-casting | SPCE | Drop-casting of the suspension of PAA(+) and SDS(−) | SPCE/SDS@PAA | Xanthate | IMP | [139] |
PAH(+) | PAH | Drop-casting | SPCE | Drop-casting of PAH(+) on oxidized SPCE | SPCE/PAH | NADH | DPV | [140] |
PDDA(+) | PDDA | from the solution | GCE | PDDA(+) in sample solution | GCE covered with PDDA during analysis | uric acid and ascorbic acid | DPV | [141] |
PAA(+); HPA (+) | Hydrazinium poly acrylate (HPA) | Drop-casting | SPCE | Drop-casting of the PAA(+) or HPA(+) onto SPCE | SPCE/PAA or HPA | Form aldehyde | CV | [142] |
PBI-BA(−) | poly[N-(1-one-butyric acid) benzimidazole] (PBI-BA) | Drop-casting | Au | Drop-casting of the solution of the PBI-BA(−) or graphene modified PBI-BA(−) (PBI-BA(−)@ graphene) onto Au | Au/PBI-BA or graphene@PBI-BA | H2O2 | AMP | [143] |
PAH(+) | ssDNA | Drop-casting | Chip (pSi-SiO2) | Drop-coating of the PAH(+) onto chip/then immobilization of ssDNA(−) | Chip/PAH/ssDNA | cDNA | IMP | [144] |
3.5. Other Method Involved in Application of PEs in Sensor Architectures | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
3.5.1. Electrospinning and Spin-Coating of PE onto a Working Electrode | ||||||||
PE(s) Used | Sensing Element | Modification Methods | Electrode/Substrate | Path of Modification | Sensor Construction | Analyte | Analysis Method | Reference |
Crosslinked and quaternized QC-P4VP(+) | AgNPs | Electro spinning/dip-coating | Au | Electrospinning of P4PVP; then crosslinking and quaternization with 1,4-dibromobutane (DBB) to obtain QC-P4VP(+); then dip-coating into Ag+ followed by reduction by UV lamp | Au/QC-P4VP@AgNPs | Humidity | IMP | [145] |
PAH(+) | PA6@PAH(+)@MWCNTs | Electrospinning | ITO | Electrospinning of polyamide (PA6) and PAH(+) onto ITO; then immersion into dispersion of the MWCNTs | ITO/PA6@PAH@MWCNTs | Dopamine | DPV | [146] |
PAA(+) SDS(−) surfactant | HRP | Spin-coating | Si coated with Pd, Ti, Au | spin-coated redox-active glycoppolyelectrolyte containing Os(bpy)2 (GOsPA) mixed with SDS(−) onto electrode; then building of the protein building blocks such as Con A, Os-Con A; then immobilization of HRP | Au/GOsPA-SDS/Con A or Os-Con A/HRP | H2O2 | CV; AMP | [147] |
PDDA(+); PVS(−) | Silica@PEC | Spin coating/drop-casting | GCE; glass | mixing solution of tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) and PDDA(+) or PEC (PDDA(+)@PVS(−)) during preparation of silica sol (in various ratio depending on ion-exchange power); then addition of adenine; then spin-coating onto electrode; then removing adenine from film in ethanol. | GCE/silica@PEC | Adenine and guanine | DPV;SWV | [148] |
3.5.2. PEs in Construction of Reporter Probes, Nanoprobes, etc. | ||||||||
PDDA(+) | DNAzyme/PtNPs/CNTs | Hybridization | Au | Capture probe (electrode): hybridization of target DNA onto Au electrode modified with capture DNA probe Reporter probe: mixture of CNTs(−) and PDDA(+) to obtain CNTs(−)@PDDA(+); then mixing with PtNPs; then immobilization of DNAzyme (DNA labeled with enzyme) by mixing; then immobilization onto modified Au electrode by hybridization. | Reporter probe (nanoprobe): CNTs@PDDA@PtNPs@DNAzyme | DNA | AMP | [149] |
PDDA(+) | Anti-HigG | Drop-casting | SPCE | Capture probe (electrode): drop-casting of the Au(III) onto SPCE followed by electroreduction; then immobilization of the anti-HigG; then BSA (blocking surface); Reporter probe (nanoprobe): Prussian blue (PB) functionalized mesoporous carbon nanosphere (MCN) (obtained using silica template) (MCN@PB(−)); then coated with PDDA(+); then reduction of the AuCl4− with citrate to obtain MCN@PB(−)@AuNPs; then anti-HigG and GOx through the inherent interaction between Au NPs and protein | Reporter probe (nanoprobe): MCN@PB/PDDA@AuNPs@HigG and GOx | HigG | DPV | [150] |
PDDA(+); PSS(−) | FC@PE@Ab2 | Drop-casting | GCE | Capture probe (electrode): immobilization of Ab1 by amidation onto oxidized GCE(−) Reporter probe (nanoprobe): CaCO3 (as templates) nanoparticles mixed with PDDA(+), PSS(−) and FC; then mixing of the obtained modified CaCO3@FC@PDDA(+)@PSS(−) with Ab2 | Reporter probe (nanoprobe): CaCO3@FC@PDDA@PSS@Ab2 | Interleukin-6 (IL-6) | SWV | [151] |
PAA(+) | Gene sensing material | Rubber | PEDOT embedded electrospun rubber; then grafting PAA(+) as brushes; then potentiodynamically polymerized ssDNA(−) | Rubber/PEDOT/PAA/gene sensing material | Non-Hodgkin lymphoma gene (cDNA) | IMP | [152] |
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Škugor Rončević, I.; Krivić, D.; Buljac, M.; Vladislavić, N.; Buzuk, M. Polyelectrolytes Assembly: A Powerful Tool for Electrochemical Sensing Application. Sensors 2020, 20, 3211. https://doi.org/10.3390/s20113211
Škugor Rončević I, Krivić D, Buljac M, Vladislavić N, Buzuk M. Polyelectrolytes Assembly: A Powerful Tool for Electrochemical Sensing Application. Sensors. 2020; 20(11):3211. https://doi.org/10.3390/s20113211
Chicago/Turabian StyleŠkugor Rončević, Ivana, Denis Krivić, Maša Buljac, Nives Vladislavić, and Marijo Buzuk. 2020. "Polyelectrolytes Assembly: A Powerful Tool for Electrochemical Sensing Application" Sensors 20, no. 11: 3211. https://doi.org/10.3390/s20113211