A New Approach to Predicting Cryptocurrency Returns Based on the Gold Prices with Support Vector Machines during the COVID-19 Pandemic Using Sensor-Related Data
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Sensing Data of Cryptocurrencies, Gold, and COVID-19
Algorithm 1 Approach to predict the daily classification of cryptocurrencies returns relating them to gold price and COVID-19 data using sensors. |
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3. Methodology
- One-to-one method: Here, we break down the m classes into mutual binary classes, where a binary SVM is employed to differentiate between every two binary classes. Each binary SVM finds a hyperplane that separates between every two classes, neglecting the data points of the other classes. For example, consider , say, with classes , and 4. In this case, we have six different SVMs applied to the binary classes , and .
- One-to-rest method: Here, the classifier can use m binary SVMs by obtaining an optimal hyperplane that separates between a class and all others at once. For example, consider , say, with classes , and 3. In this case, we have three different SVMs applied to the binary classes , , and .
- Linear function:
- Polynomial function:
- Radial basis function:
- Sigmoid function:
4. Empirical Analysis with Real-World Data
- Daily confirmed COVID-19 infections and deaths:First, we collect the daily confirmed COVID-19 infections and deaths from the online repository https://github.com/CSSEGISandData/COVID-19 (accessed on 29 August 2021). This web-hosting has been operated by the Johns Hopkins University Center for Systems Science and Engineering from 23 January 2020 until the present, and it is updated twice daily. We consider the period from 23 January 2020 to 14 July 2021. This period essentially accounts for all available data officially published [39] up to the date where we started this research.
- Daily gold price in US dollars:Second, to compare the impact of the pre-COVID-19 period with the COVID-19 period on the classification of cryptocurrency returns according to the quantile values of the gold price (in US dollars), we collected the gold price data from the website https://www.gold.org/goldhub/data/gold-prices (accessed on 29 August 2021) over the period 04 December 2018 to 14 July 2021. In this article, the word return is used synonymously with log returns.The four graphs in the upper and middle of Figure 2 present the distribution and trend of the daily infections and deaths due to COVID-19. The graphs show that, for more than 100 days, the number of daily deaths ranged from 5000 to 7500 cases. The plots in Figure 2 show that the daily confirmed COVID-19 infections and deaths and the daily gold prices followed a similar trend during the period of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. The gold prices report high volatility clustering in the pandemic compared with the pre-COVID-19 period. For the entire period of study, the probability density function of the gold prices is slightly skewed to the left with a high excess kurtosis.Remark. Note that the shaded region in Figure 2, Figure 3 and Figure 4 describes the period after the beginning of the pandemic for better visualization of the impact of COVID-19 on the gold price/cryptocurrency return. Also, in these figures and in Figure 5, Figure 6 and Figure 7, the vertical dotted line represents the threshold between the pre-COVID-19 period and ongoing COVID-19 period.
- Daily closing price of major cryptocurrencies in US dollars:Third, we collect the daily closing price and market capitalization for some major cryptocurrencies available from the online source https://coinmarketcap.com (accessed on 29 August 2021). For the current research, as mentioned, we study the six cryptocurrency assets, that is, ADA, BNB, BTC, DOGE, ETH, and XRP, selected from the top 10 ranked currencies.Table 1 provides the main characteristics of the top-ranked cryptocurrencies and Figure 3 presents the market capitalization of used currencies over the study period. Again, the vertical dotted lines represent the threshold between the two periods of time (before and during the pandemic). The trends show an exponential increase in the market capitalization of BTC and ETH and less increase in the other currencies during the period of the outbreak of the pandemic.
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Rank | Name | Symbol | Price (in US $) | Market Capitalization (in US $) |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Bitcoin | (BTC) | 32,822.35 | 615,635,042,692 |
2 | Ethereum | (ETH) | 1,994.33 | 232,727,182,406 |
3 | Tether | (USDT) | 1.00 | 62,093,784,456 |
4 | Binance Coin | (BNB) | 309.41 | 47,473,117,237 |
5 | Cardano | (ADA) | 1.26 | 40,444,089,747 |
6 | Ripple | (XRP) | 0.62 | 28,669,334,327 |
7 | USD Coin | (USDC) | 1.00 | 26,668,074,913 |
8 | Dogecoin | (DOGE) | 0.20 | 25,738,852,158 |
9 | Polkadot | (DOT) | 13.67 | 13,310,832,721 |
10 | Binance USD | (BUSD) | 1.00 | 11,579,221,385 |
Variable | Period | Min | Mean | Median | Max | SD * | JB Test ** | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gold | Pre-COVID-19 | 1235 | 1292 | 1391 | 1400 | 1490 | 1573 | 31 | |
COVID-19 | 1474 | 1720 | 1792 | 1800 | 1880 | 2067 | 113 | 12 | |
Both periods | 1235 | 1429 | 1617 | 1617 | 1817 | 2067 | 51 | ||
BTC | Pre-COVID-19 | 137 | |||||||
COVID-19 | |||||||||
Both periods | 12196 | ||||||||
ETH | Pre-COVID-19 | 96 | |||||||
COVID-19 | 5793 | ||||||||
Both periods | 8429 | ||||||||
BNB | Pre-COVID-19 | 43 | |||||||
COVID-19 | |||||||||
Both periods | 7818 | ||||||||
ADA | Pre-COVID-19 | 317 | |||||||
COVID-19 | 1817 | ||||||||
Both periods | 2550 | ||||||||
XRP | Pre-COVID-19 | 109 | |||||||
COVID-19 | 1657 | ||||||||
Both periods | 4590 | ||||||||
DOGE | Pre-COVID-19 | 452 | |||||||
COVID-19 | 36,238 | ||||||||
Both periods | 154,646 |
COVID-19 Infected Cases | COVID-19 Death Cases | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Null Hypothesis | Wald | -Value | Null Hypothesis | Wald | p-Value | |
0.4376 | 0.7262 | 0.1968 | 0.8985 | |||
0.9753 | 0.4044 | 0.6815 | 0.5638 | |||
1.9525 | 0.1207 | 0.8400 | 0.4726 | |||
0.7258 | 0.5371 | 0.2029 | 0.8944 | |||
1.0662 | 0.3634 | 2.0982 | 0.1000 | |||
2.4939 | 0.0597 | 2.2387 | 0.0834 | |||
0.8942 | 0.4442 | 2.2739 | 0.0796 |
Currency | Linear Kernel | Polynomial Kernel | Radial Kernel | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Accuracy | c | Accuracy | c | d | Accuracy | c | ||
Binance Coin | 73.2 | 64 | 76.8 | 512 | 3 | 91.5 | 512 | 0.4 |
Bitcoin | 74.5 | 256 | 77.3 | 256 | 3 | 91.8 | 512 | 0.3 |
Cardano | 72.6 | 256 | 74.8 | 512 | 3 | 91.1 | 128 | 0.4 |
Dogecoin | 71.8 | 256 | 76.5 | 512 | 3 | 89.4 | 16 | 0.4 |
Ethereum | 73.0 | 64 | 79.3 | 128 | 3 | 90.9 | 128 | 0.3 |
Ripple | 72.3 | 128 | 75.8 | 512 | 3 | 90.8 | 256 | 0.3 |
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Mahdi, E.; Leiva, V.; Mara’Beh, S.; Martin-Barreiro, C. A New Approach to Predicting Cryptocurrency Returns Based on the Gold Prices with Support Vector Machines during the COVID-19 Pandemic Using Sensor-Related Data. Sensors 2021, 21, 6319. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21186319
Mahdi E, Leiva V, Mara’Beh S, Martin-Barreiro C. A New Approach to Predicting Cryptocurrency Returns Based on the Gold Prices with Support Vector Machines during the COVID-19 Pandemic Using Sensor-Related Data. Sensors. 2021; 21(18):6319. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21186319
Chicago/Turabian StyleMahdi, Esam, Víctor Leiva, Saed Mara’Beh, and Carlos Martin-Barreiro. 2021. "A New Approach to Predicting Cryptocurrency Returns Based on the Gold Prices with Support Vector Machines during the COVID-19 Pandemic Using Sensor-Related Data" Sensors 21, no. 18: 6319. https://doi.org/10.3390/s21186319