Immunosensors for Autoimmune-Disease-Related Biomarkers: A Literature Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
Biomarkers and Analytical Tools
2. AD Immunosensors Detecting Autoantibodies
3. AD Immunosensors Detecting Other Protein Biomarkers
4. Discussion
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Type of Signal Transduction | Immunoassay Principle—Use of Secondary Antibody | Autoantibody-Biomarker | Limit of Detection (LoD)/ Concentration Range | Autoimmune Disease | Biological Sample | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Electrochemical (Cyclic voltammetry (CV) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS)) | Non-competitive, direct-type assay | Anti-oncostatin-M receptor autoantibodies | - | Systemic sclerosis (SSc) | Human serum from healthy individuals and SSc patients | [41] |
Electrochemical (Voltammetry) | Non-competitive, direct-type assay | Anti-citrullinated peptide/protein autoantibodies (ACPAs) | 15 pg mL−1/ 8–250 pg mL−1 | Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) | Human serum (spiked) | [18] |
Electrochemical (EIS) | Non-competitive, direct-type assay | ACPAs | 0.82 IU ** mL−1/ 1–800 IU mL | RA | Human serum (spiked) | [42] |
Optical (Spectral correlation interferometry—SCI) | Non-competitive, direct-type assay; a non-labeled secondary antibody was used | Anti-thyroglobulin (anti-TG) and anti-thyroid peroxidase (anti-TPO) autoantibodies | 6 IU mL−1 (anti-TG) 1.7 IU mL−1 (anti-TPO)/ 6–400 IU mL−1 (anti-TG) 1.7–860 IU mL−1 (anti-TPO) | Autoimmune thyroid diseases | Patients’ serum | [46] |
Piezoelectric quartz-crystal microbalance | Non-competitive, direct-type assay | Anti-phospholipase A2 receptor (anti-PL2R) autoantibodies | 0.1 μg mL−1/ 0.5–100 μg mL−1 | Primary membranous nephropathy (pMN) | Patients’ serum | [44] |
Electrochemical (EIS) | Non-competitive, direct-type assay | Immunoglobulin M—rheumatoid factor (IgM-RF) | 0.22 IU mL−1/ 10–200 IU mL−1 | RA | Human serum (spiked) | [47] |
Electrochemical (Voltammetry) | Non-competitive, direct-type assay; a labeled secondary antibody was used | Anti-tissue transglutaminase (anti-tTG) autoantibodies | 1.8 ng mL−1/ 0.005–1 μg mL−1 | Celiac disease (CD) | Serum from healthy individuals and CD patients | [50] |
Electrochemical (Impedance spectroscopy and square wave voltammetry) | Non-competitive, direct-type assay | Autoantibodies on red blood cells (RBCs) | - | Autoimmune hemolytic anemia | Healthy and “sick” RBCs (i.e., RBCs from healthy and affected individuals) | [52] |
Optical (Colorimetry) | Non-competitive, direct-type assay | IgM-RF | 4.15 IU mL−1 | RA | Human plasma (spiked) | [48] |
Electrochemical (Electro-chemiluminescence—ECL) | Non-competitive, direct-type assay *; a labeled secondary antibody was used | Anti-myeloperoxidase (anti-MPO) autoantibodies | 15.68 fg mL−1/ 50 fg mL−1–1 ng mL−1 | Anti-neutrophil cytoplasm antibody-associated vasculitides | Human serum (spiked) | [55] |
Electrochemical (Amperometry) | Non-competitive, direct-type assay *; a labeled secondary antibody was used | Anti-double-stranded DNA (anti-dsDNA) autoantibodies | 8 μg mL−1 | Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) | Patients’ serum | [56] |
Electrochemical (Amperometry) | Non-competitive, direct-type assay; a labeled secondary antibody was used | Anti-tTG autoantibodies (IgG and IgA) | 1.4 AU ** mL−1 (IgG) and 3.2 AU mL−1 (IgA)/ up to 30 AU mL−1 (IgG and IgA) | CD | Patients’ serum LOD: 3.2 AU **/mL (IgA), 1.4 AU/mL (IgG) | [57] |
Electrochemical (Electro-chemiluminescence—ECL) | Non-competitive, direct-type assay | Anti-glutamate decarboxylase (anti-GAD) autoantibodies | 0.10 ng mL−1/ 0.30–50 ng mL−1 | Type-1 diabetes (T1D) or latent autoimmune diabetes in adult | Patients’ serum | [58] |
Piezoelectric Quartz-crystal microbalance | Non-competitive, direct-type assay | Anti-TRIM21 and anti-TROVE2 autoantibodies | 0.01 U ** mL−1 (anti-TRIM21) 0.005 U mL−1 (anti-TROVE2)/ 0.32–7.17 U mL−1 (anti-TRIM21) 0.07–1.46 U mL−1 (anti-TROVE2) | SLE | Serum from healthy individuals and SLE patients | [59] |
Electrochemical (Amperometry) | Non-competitive, direct-type assay; a labeled secondary antibody was used | Anti-tTG autoantibodies | 0.26 μg mL−1/ 0.26–6.9 μg mL−1 | CD | Serum from CD patients | [60] |
Electrochemical (Amperometry) | Non-competitive, direct-type assay; a labeled secondary antibody was used | Anti-tTG autoantibodies (IgA and IgG) | 1.7 AU mL−1 (IgA) and 2.7 AU mL−1 (IgG)/ Up to 30 AU mL−1 (IgA and IgG) | CD | Serum from pediatric patients | [61] |
Electrochemical (EIS) | Non-competitive, direct-type assay | Anti-Myelin Basic Protein (anti-MBP) autoantibodies | 0.1495 ng mL−1/ 0.4875–2500 ng mL−1 | Multiple sclerosis (MS) | Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and serum from relapsing/remitting MS patients | [62] |
Electrochemical (CV) | Non-competitive, direct-type assay; a labeled secondary antibody was used | Anti-tTG autoantibodies | - | CD | Serum from CD patients | [63] |
Electrochemical (Amperometry) | Non-competitive, direct-type assay *; a labeled secondary antibody was used | Anti-tTG autoantibodies | 390 ng mL−1 | CD | Serum from CD patients | [64] |
Electrochemical (Amperometry) | Non-competitive, direct-type assay *; a labeled secondary antibody was used | ACPAs | - | RA | Serum from RA patients | [65] |
Piezoelectric Quartz-crystal microbalance | Non-competitive, direct-type assay | ACPAs | - | RA | Serum from RA patients | [66] |
Electrochemical (EIS) | Non-competitive, direct-type assay; a labeled secondary antibody was used | Anti-tTG autoantibodies | - | CD | Serum from CD patients | [67] |
Piezoelectric Quartz-crystal microbalance | Non-competitive, direct-type assay | Anti-dsDNA autoantibodies | - | SLE | Serum from healthy individuals and patients with bronchial asthma and SLE | [68] |
Optical (Surface plasmon resonance–SPR) | Non-competitive, direct-type assay | Anti-GAD autoantibodies | - | T1D | (Buffer) | [69] |
Type of Signal Transduction | Immunoassay Principle | Protein-Biomarker | LoD/ Concentration Range | Autoimmune Disease | Biological Sample | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Optical (Multi Area Reflectance Spectroscopy—MARS) | Non-competitive, sandwich-type assay | Procalcitonin and interleukin-6 (IL-6) | 2.0 ng mL−1 (PCT) and 0.01 ng mL−1 (IL-6)/ up to 100.0 ng mL−1 (PCT) and up to 10.0 ng mL−1 (IL-6) | Various inflammatory/autoimmune diseases | Human serum | [74] |
Electrochemical (Cyclic voltammetry (CV) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS)) | Non-competitive, direct-type assay | Oncostatin-M receptor (sOSMR) protein | 0.42 pg mL−1/ 0.005–500 pg mL−1 | Systemic sclerosis (SSc) | Serum from healthy individuals and SSc patients | [41] |
Electrochemical (Amperometry) | Non-competitive, sandwich-type assay | B cell activation factor (BAFF) and a proliferation-induced ligand (APRIL) | 0.33 pg mL−1 (BAFF) and 16.4 pg mL−1 (APRIL) / 1.1–100 pg mL−1 (BAFF) and 0.05–20 ng mL−1 (APRIL) | Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) | Serum from healthy individuals and SLE patients | [76] |
Electrochemical (Amperometry) | Non-competitive, sandwich-type assay | B cell activation factor (BAFF) and a proliferation-induced ligand (APRIL) | 0.08 ng mL−1 (BAFF) and 0.06 ng mL−1 (APRIL) / 0.24–120 ng mL−1 (BAFF) and 0.19–25 ng mL−1 (APRIL) | SLE | Serum from SLE patients | [77] |
Electrochemical (Amperometry) | Non-competitive, sandwich-type assay | CCL5 chemokine | 40 pg mL−1/ 0.1–300 ng mL−1 | Multiple sclerosis (MS) | Serum from healthy individuals and MS patients | [78] |
Electrochemical (Amperometry) | Non-competitive, sandwich-type assay | IL-6 | 0.42 pg mL−1/ 0.97–250 pg mL−1 | Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) | Human serum (spiked) | [22] |
Electrochemical (Amperometry) | Non-competitive, sandwich-type assay | CXCL7 chemokine and MMP3 metalloproteinase | 0.8 ng mL−1 (CXCL7) and 1.2 pg mL−1 (MMP3)/ 1–75 ng mL−1 (CXCL7) and 2.0–2000 pg mL−1 (MMP3) | RA | Serum from healthy individuals and RA patients | [79] |
Electrochemical (EIS) | Non-competitive, direct-type assay | Tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα) | 0.085 pg mL−1/ 1–25 pg mL−1 | Various inflammatory/autoimmune diseases | Serum and tears from healthy individuals; cerebrospinal fluid (CFS) from patients undergone routine lumbar puncture | [80] |
Electrochemical (Differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) and EIS) | Non-competitive, direct-type assay | Myelin Basic Protein (MBP) and Tau proteins | 0.30 nM (MBP) and 0.15 nM (Tau) | MS | CSF and serum from MS patients | [82] |
Electrochemical (Voltammetry) | Non-competitive, direct-type assay | Insulin | 5 pM/ 5–200 pM | Diabetes types I and II | Serum from diabetic patients | [83] |
Electrochemical (EIS) | Non-competitive, direct-type assay | Interleukin-12 (IL-12) | 3.5 pg mL−1/ 0.1–500 pg mL−1 | MS | Fetal bovine serum (FBS) | [84] |
Electrochemical (Amperometry) | Non-competitive, direct-type assay | Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) | 0.02 ng mL−1/ 0.03–230 ng mL−1 | RA | Serum from RA patients | [85] |
Electrochemical (EIS) | Non-competitive, direct-type assay | IL-12 | <100 fM | MS | (Buffer) | [86] |
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Karachaliou, C.-E.; Livaniou, E. Immunosensors for Autoimmune-Disease-Related Biomarkers: A Literature Review. Sensors 2023, 23, 6770. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23156770
Karachaliou C-E, Livaniou E. Immunosensors for Autoimmune-Disease-Related Biomarkers: A Literature Review. Sensors. 2023; 23(15):6770. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23156770
Chicago/Turabian StyleKarachaliou, Chrysoula-Evangelia, and Evangelia Livaniou. 2023. "Immunosensors for Autoimmune-Disease-Related Biomarkers: A Literature Review" Sensors 23, no. 15: 6770. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23156770