Extracellular Vesicles in Viral Replication and Pathogenesis and Their Potential Role in Therapeutic Intervention
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. EV Biogenesis and Uptake
2.1. Exosomes
2.2. Microvesicles
2.3. Apoptotic Bodies
2.4. EV Uptake
3. EV Isolation Method and Characterization Techniques
4. EVs in Viral Transmission and Pathogenesis: A Brief Overview
4.1. HIV and EVs
4.2. HPV and EVs
4.3. Influenza Virus and EVs
4.4. Hepatitis C Virus and EVs
4.5. Coronaviruses and EVs
4.6. Other Viral Infections and EVs
5. EV-Based Antiviral and Antiretroviral Therapy
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Virus | Type | Specific | Proposed Mechanism | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
HIV | Viral protein | Nef | HIV-infected cell-derived exosomes carrying negative regulatory factor (Nef) induces apoptosis in T-lymphocytes; Nef-transfected microglia-released Nef+exosomes reduce the blood–brain barrier (BBB) integrity | [112,114] |
Chemokines and receptors | CCR5, CXCR4, MCP-1 | Facilitate the entry of HIV | [115] | |
Proinflammatory markers | IL-6, TNF-β, IL-8 | HIV-infected cells derived exosome containing TAR RNA plays a role in the increase of IL-6 and TNF-β in macrophages. HIV-infected U1 macrophages upon Cigarette smoke condensate (CSC) treatment enhanced the packaging of IL-6 in EVs; IL-8 served as a biomarker for HIV patients with altered immune function due to alcohol and tobacco abuse | [20,116,117] | |
Host protein | APOBEC3G | Inhibit replication of viral infectivity factor (vif) -deficient and wild-type HIV-1 in recipient cells | [118] | |
miRNA | vmiR-88 and vmiR-99 | Triggers endosomal toll-like receptor (TLR) 8 and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling, stimulating the release of TNFα by delivering EV to bystander macrophages, and may contribute to chronic immune activation | [119] | |
Oxidative stress factors Cellular markers | CYP (1A1, 1B1, and 2A6), SOD1, CAT GFAP | Induce HIV replication. HIV-infected U1 macrophages upon CSC treatment promotes differential packaging of CYPs and AOEs in EVs Increased levels of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) in plasma EVs from HIV subjects can serve as a potential biomarker | [116,120,121] | |
HPV | mRNAs | E6 and E7 | Contribute to viral immune-evasion and act in concert to promote tumor development through the interaction with multiple cellular proteins | [122,123] |
miRNA | miR-9, -20b, and let-7b | Cancer-associated, cellular pathways targeted by these miRNAs. Induce tumorigenesis through the effect of these microRNAs on their targets | [124] | |
miR-222 | Plays a role in cervical carcinogenesis, notably through the downregulation of p27 and phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome 10 (PTEN) | [125] | ||
miR-7-5p | Favors cell proliferation | [126] | ||
miR-92a-3p | Possesses anti-apoptotic properties | [127] | ||
Proinflammatory mediators | CCL2 and TNFα | Inflammatory immune mediators | [24,124] | |
Influenza | Protein | Epithelial mucins MUC1, MUC4, and MUC16 | Human airway-derived exosome-like vesicles containing mucins neutralize human influenza virus infection | [128] |
miRNA | miR-483-3p, hsa-miR-1975 | Anti-viral and inflammatory response to influenza virus infection; suppresses influenza virus replication | [129,130] | |
HCV | Viral Genetic Material | RNA | Receptor independent viral transmission to hepatocytes; IFN-α production in plasmacytoid dendritic cells | [131,132] |
miRNA | miR-122 | HCV transmission | [133] | |
Envelope proteins | E1 and E2 glycoprotein | Modulate and transmit HCV infection | [134] | |
Coronavirus | Viral Protein | spike S proteins (SARS-CoV | Induce high levels of neutralizing antibodies, vaccine candidates for immunotherapy | [135] |
Other Viruses | ||||
EBV | miRNA | BHRF1 and BART miRNAs | miRNA-mediated repression of EBV target genes such as CXCL11 and LMP1 | [136] |
Host protein | Galectin-9 | This protein interacts with the Tim3 membrane receptor and induces apoptosis in T cells | [137] | |
Viral protein | Latent Membrane Protein 1 (LMP-1) | Up-regulate adhesion molecules, such as ICAM-1, in recipient cells, promoting infectivity; modulate signaling pathway such as CD40 and FGF2 | [138] | |
HSV | Viral Protein | viral glycoprotein B | Modulates immune responses to the viral antigen (Ag) | [139] |
Viral miRNAs | miR-H28, miR-H29 | Restrict viral replication and cell-to-cell spread of viral infection | [140] | |
Host protein | Stimulator of INF genes (STING) protein | Activates antiviral responses in recipient cells, Inhibits viral gene expression, and replication. | [141] | |
HBV | Viral proteins | large S, Core and P proteins | Hepatocytes secreted exosomes participate in virus replication | [142] |
Viral miRNAs | HBV-miR-3 | Represses viral protein production and HBV replication | [143] | |
HTLV-1 | Viral proteins | gp61, Tax, and HBZ | Increase cell-to-cell contact and promote a potential increase in viral spread | [144] |
Zika | Viral genetic material and protein | RNA and ZIKV-E | EVs derived from Infected C6/36 cells promote infection and activation of monocytes with enhanced TNF-α mRNA expression. | [145] |
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Kumar, A.; Kodidela, S.; Tadrous, E.; Cory, T.J.; Walker, C.M.; Smith, A.M.; Mukherjee, A.; Kumar, S. Extracellular Vesicles in Viral Replication and Pathogenesis and Their Potential Role in Therapeutic Intervention. Viruses 2020, 12, 887. https://doi.org/10.3390/v12080887
Kumar A, Kodidela S, Tadrous E, Cory TJ, Walker CM, Smith AM, Mukherjee A, Kumar S. Extracellular Vesicles in Viral Replication and Pathogenesis and Their Potential Role in Therapeutic Intervention. Viruses. 2020; 12(8):887. https://doi.org/10.3390/v12080887
Chicago/Turabian StyleKumar, Asit, Sunitha Kodidela, Erene Tadrous, Theodore James Cory, Crystal Martin Walker, Amber Marie Smith, Ahona Mukherjee, and Santosh Kumar. 2020. "Extracellular Vesicles in Viral Replication and Pathogenesis and Their Potential Role in Therapeutic Intervention" Viruses 12, no. 8: 887. https://doi.org/10.3390/v12080887