Hepatitis C Virus Infection in Persons Who Inject Drugs in the Middle East and North Africa: Intervention Strategies
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. HCV Epidemiology in the MENA Region
3. Risk Factors for HCV Transmission
4. Injection Drug Use and Substance Use Disorders in the MENA Region
5. Intervention Strategies for the MENA Region
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Maasoumy, B.; Wedemeyer, H. Natural history of acute and chronic hepatitis C. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Gastroenterol. 2012, 26, 401–412. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sandmann, L.; Schulte, B.; Manns, M.P.; Maasoumy, B. Treatment of Chronic Hepatitis C: Efficacy, Side Effects and Complications. Visc. Med. 2019, 35, 161–170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- World Health Organization. Global Hepatitis Report; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2017; ISBN 978-92-4-156545-5. Available online: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/global-hepatitis-report-2017 (accessed on 10 June 2021).
- The Polaris Observatory HCV Collaborators. Global prevalence and genotype distribution of hepatitis C virus infection in 2015: A modelling study. Lancet Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2017, 2, 161–176. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Harfouche, M.; Chemaitelly, H.; Kouyoumjian, S.P.; Mahmud, S.; Chaabna, K.; Al-Kanaani, Z.; Abu-Raddad, L.J. Hepatitis C virus viremic rate in the Middle East and North Africa: Systematic synthesis, meta-analyses, and meta-regressions. PLoS ONE 2017, 12, e0187177. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Axley, P.; Ahmed, Z.; Ravi, S.; Singal, A.K. Hepatitis C Virus and Hepatocellular Carcinoma: A Narrative Review. J. Clin. Transl. Hepatol. 2018, 6, 79–84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Dandachi, D.; Hassan, M.; Kaseb, A.; Angelidakis, G.; Torres, H.A. Hepatitis C virus-associated hepatocellular carcinoma as a second primary malignancy: Exposing an overlooked presentation of liver cancer. J. Hepatocell. Carcinoma 2018, 5, 81–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Kohli, A.; Shaffer, A.; Sherman, A.; Kottilil, S. Treatment of hepatitis C: A systematic review. JAMA 2014, 312, 631–640. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Vutien, P.; Jin, M.; Le, M.H.; Nguyen, P.; Trinh, S.; Huang, J.F.; Yu, M.L.; Chuang, W.L.; Nguyen, M.H. Regional differences in treatment rates for patients with chronic hepatitis C infection: Systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS ONE 2017, 12, e0183851. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Inglis, S.K.; Beer, L.J.; Byrne, C.; Malaguti, A.; Robinson, E.; Sharkey, C.; Gillings, K.; Stephens, B.; Dillon, J.F. Randomised controlled trial conducted in injecting equipment provision sites to compare the effectiveness of different hepatitis C treatment regimens in people who inject drugs: A Direct obserVed therApy versus fortNightly CollEction study for HCV treatment-ADVANCE HCV protocol study. BMJ Open 2019, 9, e029516. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Kalidindi, Y.; Jung, J.; Feldman, R.; Riley, T., 3rd. Association of Direct-Acting Antiviral Treatment with Mortality among Medicare Beneficiaries with Hepatitis C. JAMA Netw. Open 2020, 3, e2011055. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zibbell, J.E.; Asher, A.K.; Patel, R.C.; Kupronis, B.; Iqbal, K.; Ward, J.W.; Holtzman, D. Increases in Acute Hepatitis C Virus Infection Related to a Growing Opioid Epidemic and Associated Injection Drug Use, United States, 2004 to 2014. Am. J. Public Health 2018, 108, 175–181. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Torrens, M.; Soyemi, T.; Bowman, D.; Schatz, E. Beyond clinical outcomes: The social and healthcare system implications of hepatitis C treatment. BMC Infect. Dis. 2020, 20, 702. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Goel, A.; Seguy, N.; Aggarwal, R. Burden of hepatitis C virus infection in India: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2019, 34, 321–329. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wait, S.; Kell, E.; Hamid, S.; Muljono, D.H.; Sollano, J.; Mohamed, R.; Shah, S.; Al Mamun, M.; Abbas, Z.; Johnston, J.; et al. Hepatitis B and hepatitis C in southeast and southern Asia: Challenges for governments. Lancet Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2016, 1, 248–255. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aaraj, E.; Jreij Abou Chrouch, M. Drug policy and harm reduction in the Middle East and North Africa: The role of civil society. Int. J. Drug Policy 2016, 31, 168–171. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chaabna, K.; Cheema, S.; Abraham, A.; Alrouh, H.; Lowenfels, A.B.; Maisonneuve, P.; Mamtani, R. Systematic overview of hepatitis C infection in the Middle East and North Africa. World J. Gastroenterol. 2018, 24, 3038–3054. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chemaitelly, H.; Mahmud, S.; Kouyoumjian, S.P.; Al-Kanaani, Z.; Hermez, J.G.; Abu-Raddad, L.J. Who to Test for Hepatitis C Virus in the Middle East and North Africa?: Pooled Analyses of 2500 Prevalence Measures, Including 49 Million Tests. Hepatol. Commun. 2019, 3, 325–339. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mahmud, S.; Al-Kanaani, Z.; Chemaitelly, H.; Chaabna, K.; Kouyoumjian, S.P.; Abu-Raddad, L.J. Hepatitis C virus genotypes in the Middle East and North Africa: Distribution, diversity, and patterns. J. Med. Virol. 2018, 90, 131–141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Mahmud, S.; Kouyoumjian, S.P.; Al Kanaani, Z.; Chemaitelly, H.; Abu-Raddad, L.J. Individual-level key associations and modes of exposure for hepatitis C virus infection in the Middle East and North Africa: A systematic synthesis. Ann. Epidemiol. 2018, 28, 452–461. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mohamoud, Y.A.; Mumtaz, G.R.; Riome, S.; Miller, D.; Abu-Raddad, L.J. The epidemiology of hepatitis C virus in Egypt: A systematic review and data synthesis. BMC Infect. Dis. 2013, 13, 288. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Mohamoud, Y.A.; Riome, S.; Abu-Raddad, L.J. Epidemiology of hepatitis C virus in the Arabian Gulf countries: Systematic review and meta-analysis of prevalence. Int. J. Infect. Dis. 2016, 46, 116–125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Sibley, A.; Han, K.H.; Abourached, A.; Lesmana, L.A.; Makara, M.; Jafri, W.; Salupere, R.; Assiri, A.M.; Goldis, A.; Abaalkhail, F.; et al. The present and future disease burden of hepatitis C virus infections with today’s treatment paradigm—Volume 3. J. Viral Hepat. 2015, 22 (Suppl. 4), 21–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Coppola, N.; Alessio, L.; Onorato, L.; Sagnelli, C.; Macera, M.; Sagnelli, E.; Pisaturo, M. Epidemiology and management of hepatitis C virus infections in immigrant populations. Infect. Dis. Poverty 2019, 8, 17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Askarian, M.; Mansour Ghanaie, R.; Karimi, A.; Habibzadeh, F. Infectious diseases in Iran: A bird’s eye view. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 2012, 18, 1081–1088. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Ramia, S.; Melhem, N.M.; Kreidieh, K. Hepatitis C virus infection in the Middle East and North Africa “MENA” region: Injecting drug users (IDUs) is an under-investigated population. Infection 2012, 40, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Liakina, V.; Hamid, S.; Tanaka, J.; Olafsson, S.; Sharara, A.I.; Alavian, S.M.; Gheorghe, L.; El Hassan, E.S.; Abaalkhail, F.; Abbas, Z.; et al. Historical epidemiology of hepatitis C virus (HCV) in select countries—Volume 3. J. Viral Hepat. 2015, 22 (Suppl. 4), 4–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Karoney, M.J.; Siika, A.M. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection in Africa: A review. Pan Afr. Med. J. 2013, 14, 44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Omran, D.; Alboraie, M.; Zayed, R.A.; Wifi, M.N.; Naguib, M.; Eltabbakh, M.; Abdellah, M.; Sherief, A.F.; Maklad, S.; Eldemellawy, H.H.; et al. Towards hepatitis C virus elimination: Egyptian experience, achievements and limitations. World J. Gastroenterol. 2018, 24, 4330–4340. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Al Kanaani, Z.; Mahmud, S.; Kouyoumjian, S.P.; Abu-Raddad, L.J. The epidemiology of hepatitis C virus in Pakistan: Systematic review and meta-analyses. R. Soc. Open Sci. 2018, 5, 180257. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Midgard, H.; Weir, A.; Palmateer, N.; Lo Re, V., 3rd; Pineda, J.A.; Macias, J.; Dalgard, O. HCV epidemiology in high-risk groups and the risk of reinfection. J. Hepatol. 2016, 65, S33–S45. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hagan, H.; Pouget, E.R.; Des Jarlais, D.C. A systematic review and meta-analysis of interventions to prevent hepatitis C virus infection in people who inject drugs. J. Infect. Dis. 2011, 204, 74–83. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Holtzman, D.; Barry, V.; Ouellet, L.J.; Des Jarlais, D.C.; Vlahov, D.; Golub, E.T.; Hudson, S.M.; Garfein, R.S. The influence of needle exchange programs on injection risk behaviors and infection with hepatitis C virus among young injection drug users in select cities in the United States, 1994–2004. Prev. Med. 2009, 49, 68–73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Pouget, E.R.; Hagan, H.; Des Jarlais, D.C. Meta-analysis of hepatitis C seroconversion in relation to shared syringes and drug preparation equipment. Addiction 2012, 107, 1057–1065. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hagan, H.; Pouget, E.R.; Des Jarlais, D.C.; Lelutiu-Weinberger, C. Meta-regression of hepatitis C virus infection in relation to time since onset of illicit drug injection: The influence of time and place. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2008, 168, 1099–1109. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gonzalez, S.A.; Fierer, D.S.; Talal, A.H. Medical and behavioral approaches to engage people who inject drugs into care for hepatitis c virus infection. Addict. Disord. Their Treat. 2017, 16, S1–S23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Bruggmann, P.; Litwin, A.H. Models of care for the management of hepatitis C virus among people who inject drugs: One size does not fit all. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2013, 57 (Suppl. 2), S56–S61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Dimova, R.B.; Zeremski, M.; Jacobson, I.M.; Hagan, H.; Des Jarlais, D.C.; Talal, A.H. Determinants of hepatitis C virus treatment completion and efficacy in drug users assessed by meta-analysis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2013, 56, 806–816. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Martinez, A.D.; Dimova, R.; Marks, K.M.; Beeder, A.B.; Zeremski, M.; Kreek, M.J.; Talal, A.H. Integrated internist—Addiction medicine—Hepatology model for hepatitis C management for individuals on methadone maintenance. J. Viral Hepat. 2012, 19, 47–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Dore, G.J.; Altice, F.; Litwin, A.H.; Dalgard, O.; Gane, E.J.; Shibolet, O.; Luetkemeyer, A.; Nahass, R.; Peng, C.Y.; Conway, B.; et al. Elbasvir-Grazoprevir to Treat Hepatitis C Virus Infection in Persons Receiving Opioid Agonist Therapy: A Randomized Trial. Ann. Intern. Med. 2016, 165, 625–634. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Grebely, J.; Dore, G.J.; Zeuzem, S.; Aspinall, R.J.; Fox, R.; Han, L.; McNally, J.; Osinusi, A.; Brainard, D.M.; Subramanian, G.M.; et al. Efficacy and Safety of Sofosbuvir/Velpatasvir in Patients with Chronic Hepatitis C Virus Infection Receiving Opioid Substitution Therapy: Analysis of Phase 3 ASTRAL Trials. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2016, 63, 1479–1481. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Rosenthal, E.S.; Silk, R.; Mathur, P.; Gross, C.; Eyasu, R.; Nussdorf, L.; Hill, K.; Brokus, C.; D’Amore, A.; Sidique, N.; et al. Concurrent Initiation of Hepatitis C and Opioid Use Disorder Treatment in People Who Inject Drugs. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2020, 71, 1715–1722. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Beyrer, C.; Wirtz, A.L.; Baral, S.; Peryskina, A.; Sifakis, F. Epidemiologic links between drug use and HIV epidemics: An international perspective. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 2010, 55 (Suppl. 1), S10–S16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Mumtaz, G.R.; Weiss, H.A.; Thomas, S.L.; Riome, S.; Setayesh, H.; Riedner, G.; Semini, I.; Tawil, O.; Akala, F.A.; Wilson, D.; et al. HIV among people who inject drugs in the Middle East and North Africa: Systematic review and data synthesis. PLoS Med. 2014, 11, e1001663. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Merat, S.; Rezvan, H.; Nouraie, M.; Jafari, E.; Abolghasemi, H.; Radmard, A.R.; Zaer-rezaii, H.; Amini-Kafiabad, S.; Maghsudlu, M.; Pourshams, A.; et al. Seroprevalence of hepatitis C virus: The first population-based study from Iran. Int. J. Infect. Dis. 2010, 14 (Suppl. 3), e113–e116. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Mahmud, S.; Mumtaz, G.R.; Chemaitelly, H.; Al Kanaani, Z.; Kouyoumjian, S.P.; Hermez, J.G.; Abu-Raddad, L.J. The status of hepatitis C virus infection among people who inject drugs in the Middle East and North Africa. Addiction 2020, 115, 1244–1262. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Day, E.; Hellard, M.; Treloar, C.; Bruneau, J.; Martin, N.K.; Ovrehus, A.; Dalgard, O.; Lloyd, A.; Dillon, J.; Hickman, M.; et al. Hepatitis C elimination among people who inject drugs: Challenges and recommendations for action within a health systems framework. Liver Int. 2019, 39, 20–30. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Heffernan, A.; Cooke, G.S.; Nayagam, S.; Thursz, M.; Hallett, T.B. Scaling up prevention and treatment towards the elimination of hepatitis C: A global mathematical model. Lancet 2019, 393, 1319–1329. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Trickey, A.; Fraser, H.; Lim, A.G.; Peacock, A.; Colledge, S.; Walker, J.G.; Leung, J.; Grebely, J.; Larney, S.; Martin, N.K.; et al. The contribution of injection drug use to hepatitis C virus transmission globally, regionally, and at country level: A modelling study. Lancet Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2019, 4, 435–444. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Dore, G.J.; Bajis, S. Hepatitis C virus elimination: Laying the foundation for achieving 2030 targets. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2021, 18, 91–92. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Martinez, I.; Ryan, P.; Valencia, J.; Resino, S. The Challenging Road to Hepatitis C Virus Eradication. J. Clin. Med. 2021, 10, 611. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mathur, P.; Comstock, E.; Makuza, J.D.; Emmanuel, B.; Sebeza, J.; Kiromera, A.; Wilson, E.; Kattakuzhy, S.; Nelson, A.; Kottilil, S.; et al. Implementation of a unique hepatitis C care continuum model in Rwanda. J. Public Health 2019, 41, e203–e208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ali, S.; Ur-Rehman, T.; Ali, M.; Haque, S.; Rasheed, F.; Lougher, E.; Nawaz, M.S.; Paudyal, V. Improving access to the treatment of hepatitis C in low- and middle-income countries: Evaluation of a patient assistance programme. Int. J. Clin. Pharm. 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, M.; O’Keefe, D.; Craig, J.; Samley, K.; Bunreth, V.; Jolivet, P.; Balkan, S.; Marquardt, T.; Dousset, J.P.; Le Paih, M. Decentralised hepatitis C testing and treatment in rural Cambodia: Evaluation of a simplified service model integrated in an existing public health system. Lancet Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2021, 6, 371–380. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Waked, I.; Esmat, G.; Elsharkawy, A.; El-Serafy, M.; Abdel-Razek, W.; Ghalab, R.; Elshishiney, G.; Salah, A.; Abdel Megid, S.; Kabil, K.; et al. Screening and Treatment Program to Eliminate Hepatitis C in Egypt. N. Engl. J. Med. 2020, 382, 1166–1174. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Beckwith, C.G.; Kuo, I.; Fredericksen, R.J.; Brinkley-Rubinstein, L.; Cunningham, W.E.; Springer, S.A.; Loeliger, K.B.; Franks, J.; Christopoulos, K.; Lorvick, J.; et al. Risk behaviors and HIV care continuum outcomes among criminal justice-involved HIV-infected transgender women and cisgender men: Data from the Seek, Test, Treat, and Retain Harmonization Initiative. PLoS ONE 2018, 13, e0197730. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Doshi, R.K.; Malebranche, D.; Bowleg, L.; Sangaramoorthy, T. Health care and HIV testing experiences among Black men in the South: Implications for “Seek, Test, Treat, and Retain” HIV prevention strategies. AIDS Patient Care STDS 2013, 27, 123–133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Smith, B.D.; Morgan, R.L.; Beckett, G.A.; Falck-Ytter, Y.; Holtzman, D.; Teo, C.G.; Jewett, A.; Baack, B.; Rein, D.B.; Patel, N.; et al. Recommendations for the identification of chronic hepatitis C virus infection among persons born during 1945–1965. MMWR Recomm. Rep. 2012, 61, 1–32. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Freiman, J.M.; Tran, T.M.; Schumacher, S.G.; White, L.F.; Ongarello, S.; Cohn, J.; Easterbrook, P.J.; Linas, B.P.; Denkinger, C.M. Hepatitis C Core Antigen Testing for Diagnosis of Hepatitis C Virus Infection: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Ann. Intern. Med. 2016, 165, 345–355. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Mathur, P.; Kottilil, S. Hepatitis C Core Antigen Testing: Still an Effective Diagnostic Method for Global Elimination of Hepatitis C. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2020, 70, 674–675. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Blackburn, N.A.; Patel, R.C.; Zibbell, J.E. Improving Screening Methods for Hepatitis C among People Who Inject Drugs: Findings from the HepTLC Initiative, 2012–2014. Public Health Rep. 2016, 131 (Suppl. 2), 91–97. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Jewett, A.; Smith, B.D.; Garfein, R.S.; Cuevas-Mota, J.; Teshale, E.H.; Weinbaum, C.M. Field-based performance of three pre-market rapid hepatitis C virus antibody assays in STAHR (Study to Assess Hepatitis C Risk) among young adults who inject drugs in San Diego, CA. J. Clin. Virol 2012, 54, 213–217. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hochstatter, K.R.; Gustafson, D.H., Sr.; Landucci, G.; Pe-Romashko, K.; Maus, A.; Shah, D.V.; Taylor, Q.A.; Gill, E.K.; Miller, R.; Krechel, S.; et al. A Mobile Health Intervention to Improve Hepatitis C Outcomes among People with Opioid Use Disorder: Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Trial. JMIR Res. Protoc. 2019, 8, e12620. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schulz, T.R.; Kanhutu, K.; Sasadeusz, J.; Watkinson, S.; Biggs, B.A. Using telehealth to improve access to hepatitis C treatment in the direct-acting antiviral therapy era. J. Telemed. Telecare 2020, 26, 180–185. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ishizaki, A.; Bouscaillou, J.; Luhmann, N.; Liu, S.; Chua, R.; Walsh, N.; Hess, S.; Ivanova, E.; Roberts, T.; Easterbrook, P. Survey of programmatic experiences and challenges in delivery of hepatitis B and C testing in low- and middle-income countries. BMC Infect. Dis. 2017, 17, 696. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Reipold, E.I.; Trianni, A.; Krakower, D.; Ongarello, S.; Roberts, T.; Easterbrook, P.; Denkinger, C. Values, preferences and current hepatitis B and C testing practices in low- and middle-income countries: Results of a survey of end users and implementers. BMC Infect. Dis. 2017, 17, 702. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Van Damme, P.; Lavanchy, D.; Hendrickx, G.; Lodewyckx, I.; Vorsters, A. Innovative Financing into Hepatitis B and C Prevention and Treatment in Low and Middle Income Countries; IFPMA: Geneva, Switzerland, 2016. [Google Scholar]
- Kaplan, K. Activist Strategies for Increasing Access to HCV Treatment in Low- and Middle-Income Countries; Swan, T., Chou, L., Benzacar, A., Eds.; Treatment Action Group: New York, NY, USA, 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Suthar, A.B.; Harries, A.D. A public health approach to hepatitis C control in low- and middle-income countries. PLoS Med. 2015, 12, e1001795. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Rosenthal, E.S.; Graham, C.S. Price and affordability of direct-acting antiviral regimens for hepatitis C virus in the United States. Infect. Agents Cancer 2016, 11, 24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Cipriano, L.E.; Goldhaber-Fiebert, J.D. Population Health and Cost-Effectiveness Implications of a “Treat All” Recommendation for HCV: A Review of the Model-Based Evidence. MDM Policy Pract. 2018, 3, 2381468318776634. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Martin, N.K.; Vickerman, P.; Dore, G.J.; Grebely, J.; Miners, A.; Cairns, J.; Foster, G.R.; Hutchinson, S.J.; Goldberg, D.J.; Martin, T.C.S.; et al. Prioritization of HCV treatment in the direct-acting antiviral era: An economic evaluation. J. Hepatol. 2016, 65, 17–25. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Talal, A.H.; Thomas, D.L.; Reynolds, J.L.; Khalsa, J.H. Toward Optimal Control of Hepatitis C Virus Infection in Persons with Substance Use Disorders. Ann. Intern. Med. 2017, 166, 897–898. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gountas, I.; Sypsa, V.; Blach, S.; Razavi, H.; Hatzakis, A. HCV elimination among people who inject drugs. Modelling pre- and post-WHO elimination era. PLoS ONE 2018, 13, e0202109. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kattakuzhy, S.; Gross, C.; Emmanuel, B.; Teferi, G.; Jenkins, V.; Silk, R.; Akoth, E.; Thomas, A.; Ahmed, C.; Espinosa, M.; et al. Expansion of Treatment for Hepatitis C Virus Infection by Task Shifting to Community-Based Nonspecialist Providers: A Nonrandomized Clinical Trial. Ann. Intern. Med. 2017, 167, 311–318. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Page, K.; Qeadan, F.; Qualls, C.; Thornton, K.; Arora, S. Project ECHO Revisited: Propensity Score Analysis and HCV Treatment Outcomes. Hepat. Med. 2019, 11, 149–152. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Martin, N.K.; Vickerman, P.; Dore, G.J.; Hickman, M. The hepatitis C virus epidemics in key populations (including people who inject drugs, prisoners and MSM): The use of direct-acting antivirals as treatment for prevention. Curr. Opin. HIV AIDS 2015, 10, 374–380. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Maru, D.S.; Bruce, R.D.; Basu, S.; Altice, F.L. Clinical outcomes of hepatitis C treatment in a prison setting: Feasibility and effectiveness for challenging treatment populations. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2008, 47, 952–961. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hajarizadeh, B.; Grebely, J.; Byrne, M.; Marks, P.; Amin, J.; McManus, H.; Butler, T.; Cunningham, E.B.; Vickerman, P.; Martin, N.K.; et al. Evaluation of hepatitis C treatment-as-prevention within Australian prisons (SToP-C): A prospective cohort study. Lancet Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2021. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kwon, J.A.; Chambers, G.M.; Luciani, F.; Zhang, L.; Kinathil, S.; Kim, D.; Thein, H.H.; Botha, W.; Thompson, S.; Lloyd, A.; et al. Hepatitis C treatment strategies in prisons: A cost-effectiveness analysis. PLoS ONE 2021, 16, e0245896. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Khalsa, J.H.; Mathur, P. Hepatitis C Virus Infection in Persons Who Inject Drugs in the Middle East and North Africa: Intervention Strategies. Viruses 2021, 13, 1363. https://doi.org/10.3390/v13071363
Khalsa JH, Mathur P. Hepatitis C Virus Infection in Persons Who Inject Drugs in the Middle East and North Africa: Intervention Strategies. Viruses. 2021; 13(7):1363. https://doi.org/10.3390/v13071363
Chicago/Turabian StyleKhalsa, Jag H., and Poonam Mathur. 2021. "Hepatitis C Virus Infection in Persons Who Inject Drugs in the Middle East and North Africa: Intervention Strategies" Viruses 13, no. 7: 1363. https://doi.org/10.3390/v13071363
APA StyleKhalsa, J. H., & Mathur, P. (2021). Hepatitis C Virus Infection in Persons Who Inject Drugs in the Middle East and North Africa: Intervention Strategies. Viruses, 13(7), 1363. https://doi.org/10.3390/v13071363