High Incidence and Levels of Ochratoxin A in Wines Sourced from the United States
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Results and Discussion
2.1. Analytical Performance of HPLC-FD Coupled to LLE
2.2. Incidence and Measured Levels of OTA in U.S. Wines
3. Conclusions
4. Materials and Methods
4.1. Wine Samples and Chemicals
4.2. Extraction and Sample Preparation for HPLC Analysis
4.3. HPLC-FD of OTA in Wines
4.4. Analytical Performance of HPLC-FD
4.5. HPLC-MS/MS of OTA in Wines
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Type (# Wines) | >LOD (%) | Mean | Median | Range | 1 Number (%) of Wines in the Concentration Range, µg L−1 | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
<0.3 | 0.3–0.5 | 0.5–1.0 | >1.0 2 | >2.0 3 | >5.0 | |||||
Red (31) | 28 (90.3) | 1.0 | 1.0 | 0.3–2.1 | 3 (9.7) | 2 (6.5) | 6 (19.4) | 17 (54.8) | 1 (3.2) | 0 (0.0) |
Sweet (3) | 2 (66.7) | 0.8 | 0.7 | 0.5–1.1 | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (33.3) | 1 (33.3) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) |
Dry (28) | 26 (92.9) | 1.0 | 1.1 | 0.3–2.1 | 3 (10.7) | 2 (7.1) | 5 (17.9) | 16 (57.1) | 0 (0) | 0 (0.0) |
White (10) | 7 (70.0) | 2.6 | 1.2 | 0.6–8.6 | 1 (10.0) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (20.0) | 4 (40.0) | 1 (10.0) | 1 (10.0) |
Sweet (7) | 4 (57.1) | 5.0 | 5.0 | 1.4–8.6 | 1 (14.3) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (14.3) | 2 (28.6) | 1 (14.3) | 1 (14.3) |
Dry (3) | 3 (100.0) | 0.9 | 1.1 | 0.6–1.2 | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (33.3) | 2 (66.7) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) |
Sweet (10) | 6 (60.0) | 2.5 | 1.1 | 0.5–8.6 | 1 (10.0) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (20.0) | 3 (30.0) | 1 (10.0) | 1 (0.0) |
Dry (31) | 29 (93.5) | 1.0 | 1.1 | 0.3–2.1 | 3 (9.7) | 2 (6.5) | 6 (19.4) | 18 (58.1) | 1 (3.2) | 0 (0.0) |
Total (41) | 35 (85.4) | 1.3 | 1.1 | 0.3–8.6 | 4 (9.8) | 2 (4.9) | 8 (19.5) | 21 (51.2) | 2 (4.9) | 1 (2.4) |
Region | Range (µg L−1) | >2 µg L−1 # Wines (%) | Analytical Method (Sample Preparation) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
North America | ||||
U.S.A. | 0.3–8.6 | 2/41 (4.9%) | HPLC-FD (LLE) | Present study |
0.01–1.68 | - | HPLC-FD (IAC) | [16] | |
Canada | 0.050–0.393 | - | HPLC-FD (IAC) | [19] |
Europe | ||||
Italy | 0.2–3.177 | N/A | HPLC-FD (IAC) | [13] |
0.1–7.63 | 6/55 (10.9%) | HPLC-FD (IAC) | [48] | |
0.2–4.93 | 9/112 (8.0%) | HPLC-FD (IAC) | [24] | |
0.03–7.50 | 22/783 (2.8%) | HPLC-FD (IAC) | [25] | |
0.01–2.63 | 29/1206 (2.4%) | HPLC-FD (IAC) | [32] | |
Greece | 0.05–2.00 | 1/105 (<1.0%) | HPLC-FD (IAC) | [33] |
0.05–2.69 | N/A | HPLC-FD (IAC) | [18] | |
0.02–3.20 | 3/35 (8.6%) | HPLC-FD (IAC) | [17] | |
Spain | 0.02–4.63 | 18/188 (9.6%) | HPLC-FD (IAC) | [23] |
Croatia | 0.014–0.021 | - | HPLC-FD (IAC) | [28] |
Turkey | 0.01–2.3 | 1/47 (2.1%) | HPLC-FD (LLE/SPE) | [21] |
[27] | ||||
Slovakia | 0.036–0.463 | - | HPLC-FD (IAC) | [22] |
Moravia | 0.001–0.072 | - | HPLC-FD (IAC) | [35] |
Portugal | 1.23–2.4 | 1/60 (1.7%) | HPLC-FD (direct inject) | [30] |
France | 0.31–0.92 | - | HPLC-FD (IAC) | [29] |
South America | HPLC-FD (IAC) | |||
Argentina | 0.028–0.042 | - | HPLC-FD (IAC) | [20] |
2.00–4.82 | 3/47 (6.4%) | HPLC-FD (IAC) | [31] | |
0.05–0.98 | - | HPLC-MS/MS (SPE) | [38] | |
Chile | 0.028–0.071 | - | HPLC-FD (IAC) | [20] |
0.14–0.35 | - | HPLC-FD (IAC) | [36] | |
Brazil | 0.028–0.042 | - | HPLC-FD (IAC) | [20] |
Africa | ||||
South Africa | 0.04–0.39 | - | HPLC-FD (IAC) | [15] |
Tunisia | 0.09–1.50 | - | HPLC-FD (IAC) | [37] |
Morocco | 0.028–3.24 | 1/30 (3.3%) | HPLC-FD (SPE) | [12] |
Asia | ||||
China | 0.09–1.18 | - | HPLC-FD (IAC) | [34] |
State (# Wines) 1 | Region (# Wines) | >LOQ (%) | Average [OTA], µg L−1 | Range 2, µg L−1 |
---|---|---|---|---|
CA (24) | 21 (87.5%) | 1.0 | 0.3–2.1 | |
Central Coast (2) | 2 (100.0%) | 0.9 | 0.7–1.1 | |
Central Valley (4) | 3 (75.0%) | 1.0 | 0.6–1.4 | |
North Coast (18) | 16 (88.9%) | 1.0 | 0.3–2.1 | |
KS (1) | 1 (100.0%) | 1.4 | ≤1.4 | |
NC (1) | 1 (100.0%) | 1.0 | ≤1.0 | |
NY (3) | 1 (33.3%) | 0.5 | ≤0.5 | |
OK (2) | 1 (50%) | 8.6 | ≤8.6 | |
OR (3) | 2 (66.7%) | 1.4 | 1.3–1.5 | |
WA (3) | 3 (100%) | 0.9 | 0.6–1.1 | |
WI (2) | 0 (0%) | <LOQ | N/A |
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De Jesus, C.L.; Bartley, A.; Welch, A.Z.; Berry, J.P. High Incidence and Levels of Ochratoxin A in Wines Sourced from the United States. Toxins 2018, 10, 1. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins10010001
De Jesus CL, Bartley A, Welch AZ, Berry JP. High Incidence and Levels of Ochratoxin A in Wines Sourced from the United States. Toxins. 2018; 10(1):1. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins10010001
Chicago/Turabian StyleDe Jesus, Christopher Lawrence, Amanda Bartley, Aaron Z. Welch, and John P. Berry. 2018. "High Incidence and Levels of Ochratoxin A in Wines Sourced from the United States" Toxins 10, no. 1: 1. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins10010001