Investigating the Effect of Pore Size Distribution on the Sorption Types and the Adsorption-Deformation Characteristics of Porous Continua: The Case of Adsorption on Carbonaceous Materials
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methodology and Bibliometric Analysis
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- Chemistry: including the fields of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering;
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- Engineering: including the fields of Engineering, Materials Science;
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- Biosciences: including the fields of “Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology”, “Agricultural and Biological Sciences”, “Medicine”, “Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics”, “Immunology and Microbiology”.
3. Case Study: Adsorption Behavior on Porous Carbonaceous Materials
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- The adsorption capacity of CO2: The equilibrium adsorption capacity is represented by the equilibrium adsorption isotherm of a sorbent material. The adsorption capacity is a crucial characteristic of adsorption, not only because it causes a reduction in the sorbent quantity, but also when considering the cost of the applied process. In order to enhance the adsorption capacity of solid sorbents, functionalization has been developed through existing monoethanolamine (MEA) [25]. The CO2 working capacity of the sorbent can be ranged at 2–4 mmol/g [25].
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- Selectivity for CO2: CO2 adsorption selectivity means the sorption uptake ratio of a target gas species compared to another type (for example, N2) is/are contained in a gaseous mixture under specific operation conditions. Therefore, CO2 adsorption selectivity is linked with the purity of the adsorbed gas in the effluent [25]. Since the purity of CO2 influences transportation and sequestration, it is an important criterion that contributes to CO2 sequestration [25].
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- Adsorption and desorption kinetics: The quick time taken to employ adsorption/desorption kinetics for CO2 is attributed to the fact that this adsorption/desorption cycle can control the whole cycle time of a fixed-bed adsorption system. Indeed, fast kinetics are inducing a sharp CO2 breakthrough curve in which effluent CO2 concentration changes are measured as a function of time, while slow kinetics should provide a distended breakthrough curve. However, both fast and slow adsorption and desorption kinetics are impacting the amount of sorbent required. In functionalized solid sorbents, the overall kinetics of CO2 adsorption are mainly bounded by the existing functional groups as well as the mass transfer or diffusional resistance of the gas phase through the sorbent structures. The porous support structures of functionalized solid sorbents can be further tailored to minimize diffusional resistance. Fast CO2 adsorption/desorption also implies less need to capture a given volume of flue gas [25].
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- Mechanical strength of sorbent particles: This property refers to the stable microstructure and morphological structures in adsorption and regeneration steps that each sorbent must sustain. Otherwise, disintegration of the sorbent particles should be reported due to the high volumetric flow rate of flue gas, vibration, and temperature. The disintegration of the sorbent particles could also occur due to abrasion or crushing. Therefore, sufficient mechanical strength of sorbent particles is required to keep the CO2 capture process cost-effective [25].
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- Chemical stability/tolerance towards impurities: The stability of solid CO2 capture sorbents, such as amine-functionalized sorbents, is dependent on the oxidizing environment of flue gas and should be resistant to common flue gas contaminants [25].
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- Regeneration of sorbents: The regeneration of the sorbent is energy-saving, and is one of the most important parameters required to improve energy efficiency [25]. Regeneration achievement can be accomplished through the adjustment of the thermodynamics of CO2-solid adsorbent interactions [25]. Considering regeneration, physisorption is mostly favored over chemisorption, since chemisorption requires high energy consumption for regeneration.
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- Sorbent costs: The production cost is a key aspect when considering industrial applications for reasonable gas selectivity and adsorption performance [25].
3.1. Adsorption and Porosity
3.2. Adsorption Kinetics and Isotherms
4. Discussion
4.1. Limitation Implications and Future Research Considerations on Porous Carbonaceous Materials
4.2. Synthesizing and Designing Aspects of Adsorptive Materials Fabrication
5. Conclusions
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- The adsorption properties of polytetrafluoroethylene and silica chemically modified with an organofluoric coating match gas chromatography at low coverage compared with other hydrophobic materials, showing that polytetrafluoroethylene is a nonpolar material with the lowest energy of adsorption of all the adsorbents studied, irrespective of their chemical nature [68].
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Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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# | Source Title | Number of Documents |
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1 | Microporous And Mesoporous Materials | 11 |
2 | Langmuir | 11 |
3 | Journal Of Colloid And Interface Science | 8 |
4 | Journal Of Chemical Physics | 7 |
5 | Colloids And Surfaces A Physicochemical And Engineering Aspects | 6 |
6 | Journal Of Porous Materials | 5 |
7 | Journal Of Physical Chemistry C | 5 |
8 | Aiche Journal | 5 |
9 | Studies In Surface Science And Catalysis | 4 |
10 | Rsc Advances | 4 |
11 | Journal Of Hazardous Materials | 4 |
12 | Industrial And Engineering Chemistry Research | 4 |
13 | Chemical Engineering Journal | 4 |
14 | Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings | 3 |
15 | Journal Of Physical Chemistry B | 3 |
16 | Fluid Phase Equilibria | 3 |
17 | Chemical Communications | 3 |
18 | Bulletin Of The Chinese Ceramic Society | 3 |
19 | Aiche Annual Meeting Conference Proceedings | 3 |
20 | Xiandai Huagong Modern Chemical Industry | 2 |
# | Source Title | Number of Documents |
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1 | China | 111 |
2 | United States | 66 |
3 | France | 27 |
4 | United Kingdom | 18 |
5 | Germany | 12 |
6 | Russian Federation | 9 |
7 | Japan | 8 |
8 | India | 8 |
9 | Australia | 8 |
10 | Taiwan | 7 |
11 | Thailand | 6 |
12 | South Korea | 6 |
13 | Poland | 6 |
14 | Malaysia | 6 |
15 | Spain | 5 |
16 | Netherlands | 5 |
17 | Undefined | 4 |
18 | Mexico | 4 |
19 | Belgium | 4 |
20 | Viet Nam | 3 |
21 | Saudi Arabia | 3 |
22 | Czech Republic | 3 |
23 | Canada | 3 |
24 | Brazil | 3 |
25 | Ukraine | 2 |
No # | Adsorption Type | Kinetics—Main Idea | Advantages (+), Disadvantages (-), Key-Aspects of Analysis and Findings | Ref. # (First Author Last Name, Year of Publication) |
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1 | B/N co-doped porous carbon materials with rich microporous structure | Investigating CO2 adsorption properties of B/N co-doped porous carbon materials | + Exceptional CO2 adsorption properties + Cycling stability + CO2/N2 selectivity + Outstanding porous structure + Efficient synergistic effect of the regular distribution of B and N atoms in the material | [11] Chen, J.X., Li, J.H. and Bao, A. (2023). |
2 | Surface-modified materials based on porous biochar | Studying the effect of surface modification on the properties of porous biochar and its adsorption properties for 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid | + Biochar modified with various substances, such as nZVI (nano zero-valent iron), shows effective adsorption capabilities for 2,4-D, indicating high efficiency + Surface modifications of biochar allow high versatility + Biochar is an environmentally friendly adsorbent compared to synthetic materials + Biochar has various functional groups that interact with 2,4-D and improve its absorption efficiency - Biochar and its modifications show decreased efficiency over time - Complex regeneration process of biochar - The active surface sites of biochar can potentially become saturated with contaminants - Each biochar type varies in its absorption efficiency | [12] Zhu, L., Zhao, N., Tong, L., Lv, Y. and Li, G. (2018). |
3 | Cadmium ion (Cd2⁺) on chitosan beads that have undergone acylation and crosslinking processes | Determining if N-acylation and crosslinking can significantly influence the material properties and cadmium ion adsorption capacity of chitosan beads | + Cadmium ion on chitosan beads that have undergone N-acylation show increased adsorption capacity + Crosslinking with glutaric dialdehyde improves the stability of the chitosan beads in acidic environments - Crosslinking the N-acylated chitosan beads reduces their saturation adsorption capacity - Crosslinking reduces the crushing strength of the chitosan beads, making them more brittle | [13] Hsien, T.-Y. and Rorrer, G.L. (1995). |
4 | Technological use of the gravimetric method through CCl4 and NH3 adsorption studies under two different relative pressure ranges. This is a study on nano-scaled porous carbons | Investigating the adsorption properties of nano-porous carbon materials in low and high relative pressures by using CCl4 and NH3 adsorption isotherms | + Nano-scaled porous carbons show enhanced adsorption capacity due to their large internal surface areas and pore volumes + Nano-scaled porous carbons can be tailored for selective adsorption - Nano-scaled porous carbons present different limited adsorption efficiency for certain compounds such as NH3 adsorption - Nano-porous carbon materials adsorption capacity is heavily dependent on the surface chemistry and presence of oxygen functional groups, at low relative pressures | [14] Lee, W.H., Park, J.S., Sok, J.H. and Reucroft, P.J. (2005). |
5 | Adsorptions of acid orange II dye from aqueous solution at different genipin contents, adsorption times and pH values | Preparing chitosan/gelatin porous materials with interpenetrating polymer networks (IPN) and porous dual structures and studying their properties on dye adsorption | + Chitosan/gelatin porous materials show high adsorption capacity for anionic dyes + Chitosan/gelatin porous materials show pH-sensitive adsorption and desorption behaviors, and thus they present efficient dye removal and potential recyclability + Chitosan/gelatin porous materials have simple preparation processes + Chitosan/gelatin porous materials can show improved stability and mechanical strength after crosslinking with genipin + Chitosan, gelatin and genipin are environmentally friendly materials - Chitosan tends to dissolve in acidic conditions - The production and use of genipin as a cross-linker can be costly - Chitosan/gelatin porous materials present incomplete desorption properties | [15] Cui, L., Xiong, Z., Guo, Y., Liu, Y., Zhao, J., Zhang, C. and Zhu, P. (2015). |
6 | Nanoporous carbon materials (NCMs) adsorption processes and properties | Exploring how the chemical functionalization of porous carbon-based materials can adjust their properties and tailor their performance in adsorption-related applications | + Chemical functionalization improves the adsorption efficiency of nanoporous carbon materials (NCMs) + Functionalized NCMs show improved performance in electrochemical energy storage applications + NCMs can be used as effective catalysts after chemical functionalization + NCMs become more versatile after chemical functionalization + Chemical functionalization of NCMs can lead to more useful and advanced applications, such as selective CO2 capture - It is very challenging for NCMs to achieve uniform and controlled functionalization - NCMs are characterized by the complexity of their chemical reactions - NCMs require unique and often more complex synthetic strategies for functionalization - Difficulty in controlling the functionalization of NCMs, therefore their adsorption performance and properties in general are less predictable | [16] Perovic, M., Qin, Q. and Oschatz, M. (2020). |
7 | Adsorption properties of porous materials from clays | Studying the possibility of using porous materials from clays as adsorbents of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) or for the purification of methane, e.g., for upgrading natural or landfill gas | + Porous materials from clays prepared by gallery-templated synthesis exhibit high surface areas and significant micropore volumes that enhance their adsorption capacity + Porous materials from clays show high potential for adsorbing volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and high efficiency in separating gases such as natural gas + Porous materials from clays exhibit high thermal stability + Porous materials from clays have hydrophobic characteristics that enhance their adsorption efficiency, especially for organic compounds in humid environments - These materials have complex and possibly expensive synthesis and preparation processes - Pores characterization of porous materials from clays is difficult, and thus so is the understanding and optimization of their adsorption properties - Questionable consistency and predictability of their performance in adsorption processes due to their lack of long-range order | [17] Pires, J., Araújo, A.C., Carvalho, A.P., Pinto, M.L., González-Calbet, J.M. and Ramírez-Castellanos, J. (2004). |
8 | Structure and iodine adsorption properties of porphyrin-cucurbituril organic molecular porous material | Studying the structure and the iodine adsorption behaviour of this porphyrin-cucurbituril supramolecular structure | + Porphyrin-cucurbituril complex demonstrates high specificity and selectivity in adsorption + This material can maintain its stability and robustness and therefore its structural integrity under various environmental conditions + Porphyrin-cucurbituril exhibits effective adsorption properties for iodine, which is important for environmental and industrial applications + This material shows enhanced photophysical and electrochemical properties that make it useful in applications such as sensors and catalytic processes - This material has complex and expensive synthesis and preparation processes - Its adsorption efficiency may be limited to certain types of guest molecules - Porphyrin-cucurbituril complex presents limited solubility in various solvents | [18] Xiao, X., Li, W. and Jiang, J. (2013). |
9 | Thermodynamic property surfaces for R507A, R134a and n-Butane adsorption on pitch-based carbonaceous porous material (Maxsorb III) | Computing and studying the entropy, enthalpy, internal energy and heat of adsorption as a function of pressure, temperature and the amount of adsorbate for the thermodynamic property surfaces of R507A, R134a and n-butane on pitch-based carbonaceous porous material (Maxsorb III) | + The thermodynamic property surfaces of R507A, R134a and n-butane on pitch-based carbonaceous porous material (Maxsorb III) offer a comprehensive thermodynamic analysis + The thermodynamic property surfaces of R507A, R134a and n-butane on pitch-based carbonaceous porous material (Maxsorb III) are particularly useful for analyzing adsorption cooling cycles and enhancing the design and performance of adsorption chillers and cryocoolers + Pitch-based carbonaceous porous material (Maxsorb III) leads to better adsorption capacity for R507A, R134a and n-butane compared to other adsorbents such as silica gel or zeolite + These thermodynamic property surfaces can help in the development of efficient gas storage systems + The creation of adsorption isotherms from thermodynamic properties can be crucial for applications in gas purification and separation - The development of thermodynamic property surfaces is characterized by complexity, thus it can be a time-consuming and a costly process - These surfaces present high variability in their adsorption energy, making them difficult to understand - Maxsorb III adsorbent surfaces can lead to non-uniform adsorption properties due to their heterogeneity - These thermodynamic property surfaces present specificity to adsorbent-adsorbate pairs, which may limit the generalizability of their findings to other materials and adsorbates - The determination of these surfaces heavily relies on experimental data that may not always be readily accessible or reproducible in different settings | [19] Chakraborty, A., Saha, B.B., Ng, K.C., El-Sharkawy, I.I. and Koyama, S. (2010). |
10 | Acetaminophen adsorption performance of new biobased carbon materials that have been created by implementing sustainable, facile and different single-step pyrolysis chemical methods (KOH, ZnCl2, ZnSO4 and MgCl2) using Norway spruce bark as a suitable and efficient carbon precursor | Creating new biomass-based carbon materials (BBPMs) as adsorbents via facile, sustainable and different single-step pyrolysis chemical methods (KOH, ZnCl2, ZnSO4 and MgCl2) using Norway spruce bark as a suitable and efficient carbon precursor and studying the effects of each chemical activator on the physicochemical structure of these materials as well as the performance of each chemical activator on the acetaminophen adsorption | + These new biomass-based carbon materials (BBPMs) have a high specific surface area, which is beneficial for their adsorption efficiency + The activation of BBPMs with different chemical activators such as KOH, ZnCl2, ZnSO4 and MgCl2 gives them a great variety of useful properties and applications + Norway spruce is a sustainable and low-cost carbon precursor + These new biomass-based carbon materials (BBPMs) have been proven to be efficient pollutant removers due to their very fast adsorption performance of acetaminophen + BBPMs show good regeneration capability + BBPMs present high hydrophobic capabilities that can be advantageous in specific applications where water repellency is desired + Their adsorption process involves multiple mechanisms that can improve their effectiveness and versatility - Selecting the appropriate chemical activator for these BBPMs can be a complex and difficult process - Some of their chemical activators such as ZnCl2 and ZnSO4 can pose health and environmental risks if they are not handled properly - Single-step pyrolysis chemical methods cause significant energy consumption - Scaling up the production of BBPMs from laboratory-scale production to industrial levels may be challenging and difficult - BBPMs present high hydrophobic capabilities that can be disadvantageous too, as long as they limit the applicability of these materials in aqueous environments | [20] Dos Reis, G.S., Guy, M., Mathieu, M., Jebrane, M., Lima, E.C., Thyrel, M., Dotto, G.L. and Larsson, S.H. (2022). |
11 | The shape of the isotherms determined for the carbonaceous samples AC-1 and AC-2 (being characterized by a larger content of basic groups) are type I isotherms without visible hysteresis loops, characteristic of the microporous materials in which the monolayer adsorption occurs. Practically, the isotherms overlap, suggesting only slight differences in their structural parameters. Extending the intermediate stage (from 1 to 2 h) at 400 °C made the surface of the AC-2 material slightly better developed (SBET = 346.7 m2/g, Vp = 0.179 mL/g) than the surface of the sample obtained according to procedure 1 (AC-1; SBET = 339.6 m2/g, Vp = 0.160 mL/g). From an economic point of view, this procedure is unfavorable. The Smicro values are high and indicate the large microporosity of the materials. The shape of the pore size distribution curves versus the mean radii is characteristic of the materials with homogeneous pore distribution, with a dominant pore size of Rdom-2 nm. The curves course, derived from the thermal decomposition of wheat bran (WB-ININ2), showed that the obtained biocarbons are stable up to about 450–500 °C. However, the stability depends insignificantly on the isothermal stage time (400 °C), the atmosphere (CO2 or steam) and the energy source. Clear peaks directed downwards are found on the DTG curves, confirming mass loss within a certain temperature range. These peaks are regular and wide, which prove the equal speed and temperature range of the combustion process. The DTA curves indicate the energy effects of the processes that took place. With the temperature increase, clear peaks on the curves related to the exothermic process of activated carbons combustion can be observed. The course of the curves revealed that the peak maxima were evidently “shifted” to the left, pointing out that the combustion process for the individual samples started at different times. | + The obtained materials are characterized by the presence of both basic and acidic groups on their surface. They are mostly acidic groups, and for all materials the total number of these groups is ~1.9 mEq/g. + It was very advantageous to introduce steam in the annealing stage at 800 °C (sample: AC-1-OX). The additional steam oxidation resulted in the better development of the pores. The isotherm determined for this material is type IV, characteristic of the mesoporous materials. The clearly visible H2-type hysteresis loop indicates the presence of bottle-shaped pores. The obtained material (AC-1-OX) has a well-developed specific surface area of SBET = 594.0 m2/g and a pore volume of Vp = 0.356 mL/g. For the tested materials, the volume of sorption pores (Vtotal) and macropores (Vmacro) was also determined using methanol as an adsorbate. These values are important because the obtained materials can be used as effective adsorbents for removing contaminations from the aquatic environment and macropores play an important role as the “transport channels”. The authors noted that the obtained values of Vtotal and Vmacro were over 10 times larger than the volume of sorption pores. The activated carbon obtained in the oxidizing atmosphere of steam (Vtotal = 3.013 mL/g) was additionally modified using a microwave as an energy source (Vtotal = 2.34 mL/g), characterized by a very large total volume of pores. - Unfortunately, the additional use of microwave treatment resulted in the reduction in the sorption pores volume in the other discussed materials (Vtotal~0.947–1.031 mL/g). Significant Vtotal values resulted from the fact that methanol fills both the available sorption pores and the intergranular spaces between the carbon matter particles. - using CO2 as an activating agent promoted the formation of oxygen basic groups. The application of the additional activation with steam was not favorable for the formation of basic surface groups. SEM images presented the structure of the material pyrolized only in the presence of CO2. The oxidizing atmosphere caused the disordered particles of the carbonaceous material to burn, which made the initially heterogeneous structure to be more homogeneous under the smallest burning degree. The carbonaceous surface was rough and folded. Pyrolysis in the oxidizing steam atmosphere caused the additional burning of the carbon material, making the pores accessible and open. The use of modifications in the form of superheated steam assisted by the energy of microwave radiation resulted in the widening of the existing pores, indicating an even better ordering of the carbon structure. The oxidizing atmosphere caused the disordered particles of the carbonaceous material to burn, which made the structure more homogeneous. This material was characterized by the best-developed surface and porous structure. | [21] Charmas, B.; Ziezio, M.; Jedynak, K. (2023) | |
12 | This study investigated magnesium slag-based porous materials (MSBPM) as an synthesized adsorbent in using alkali activation and foaming methods for the adsorption (removal of) Pb2+ in solution. The pseudo-first-order and pseudo-second-order kinetic models were used to investigate the adsorption kinetics of Pb2+ by MSBPM-H2O2 and MSBPM-Al. The porous material (MSBPM-H2O2) of high compressive strength (8.46 MPa) showed excellent Pb2+ adsorption capacity (396.11 mgg−1), obtained under the optimal conditions: a H2O2 dosage of 3%, an alkali dosage of 9%, a water glass modulus of 1.3 and a liquid–solid ratio of 0.5. Another porous material (MSBPM-Al) showed a compressive strength of 5.27 MPa and a Pb2+ adsorption capacity of 424.89 mgg-1, obtained under the optimal conditions: an aluminum powder dosage of 1.5‰, an alkali dosage of 8%, a water glass modulus of 1.0 and a liquid–solid ratio of 0.5. At a pH equal to 6, the initial Pb2+ concentrations were 200~500 mg/L; the MSBPM-H2O2 and MSBPM-Al could remove more than 99% of Pb2+ in the solution. Typically, the pseudo-first-order kinetic model better fits the initial adsorption process, where the longer the transfer time of the solute, the lower the concentration of the solution ions at the adsorption equilibrium and the greater the adsorption capacity. The pseudosecond-order kinetic model more fully describes the diffusion and adsorption process, accompanied by the formation of chemical bonds. The results indicated that the adsorption of Pb2+ by both MSBPM-H2O2 and MSBPM-Al followed the pseudo-second-order kinetic model, and the adsorption process was mainly dominated by chemical adsorption. | As the H2O2 dosage increases, the apparent density and the porosity showed a monotonic decrease and a monotonic increase, respectively, with corresponding ranges of 820~1160 kg/m3 and 61~48%. Variations in the pore structure of MSBPM with an alkali dosage of 9% were reported as well as an activator modulus of 1.3 after 28 d under the different dosages of foaming agent. As the H2O2 dosage increases, the number and size of pores increase, resulting in a loose and porous structure that is not conducive to strength development. The pore size of MSBPM foamed by H2O2 is within the range of 0.1~2.4 mm. Regarding the MSBPM-Al, the dosage of aluminum powder was negatively correlated with the compressive strength of the specimens. The pore size of MSBPM foamed by aluminum powder was within the range of 0.25~1 mm. The adsorption process of both materials followed the Langmuir isotherm model and pseudo-second-order kinetic model, indicating that the adsorption process was a single-molecule layer chemical adsorption. Indeed, the results indicated that the Langmuir model is better suited to describe the adsorption process of the adsorbent for Pb2+. Specifically, each Pb2+ molecule as an adsorbate is adsorbed onto the surface of MSBPM-H2O2 with equal adsorption activation energy, and the adsorption process is uniform and belongs to monolayer adsorption. | [22] Lu, G.; Han, J.; Chen, Y.; Xue, H.; Qiu, R.; Zhou, X.; Ma, Z., 2023 | |
13 | Due to a high risk of power outages, heat-driven adsorption chillers are gaining the attention. To increase the efficiency of the chiller, new adsorbents must be produced and examined. In this study, four newly developed silica–based porous materials were tested and compared with silica gel, an adsorber commonly paired with water. The metal organic silica (MOS) nanocomposites analysed in this study had thermal properties similar to those of commonly used silica gel. MOS samples have a thermal diffusivity coefficient in the range of 0.17–0.25 mm2/s, whereas silica gel has about 0.2 mm2/s. The highest water adsorption capacity was measured for AFSMo-Cu and was equal to 33–35%. For narrow porous silica gel, mass uptake was equal about 25%. In the case of water adsorption, it was observed that the pore size of the sorbent is essential, and adsorbents with pore sizes higher than 5 nm are recommended in working pairs with water. The highest thermal diffusivity coefficient was measured for the MPSilica sample at about 0.3 mm2/s, while the lowest was measured for silica gel at about 0.2 mm2/s for both samples. The interesting thing is that the tested sorbents were characterized by a stable value of the thermal diffusivity coefficient. In the analyzed temperature range, the thermal diffusivity coefficient in all cases was constant or slightly increased with temperature. Compared to the most commonly used adsorbent in sorption cooling devices, silica gel, the thermal diffusivity of which is 0.137 mm2/s, the thermophysical properties of the analyzed sorbents are slightly higher. | Metal-organic silica (MOS) are dynamically developing materials with significant industrial potential because of their wide range of useful properties such as high stability and resistibility to chemical changes. The mesoporous structure of the silica matrix and the extensive surface area of about 1500 m2/g enables it to obtain material with high sorption capacity. Metal-organic silica nanocomposites are characterised by a noticeable active surface area, exceeding 1000 m2/g in some cases, but in the literature, MOS with a lower BET surface area was also reported. However, it was noted that for porous materials with a developed surface area, e.g., MOFs, a BET surface area exceeding 7000 m2/g is an indicator of the potential for the use of sorbents in adsorption chillers. The modification of MOS properties is performed through the introduction of additional atoms or functional groups. The unique features of MOS make them candidates for a variety of applications, such as wastewater treatment, CO2 sequestration, catalysis, as heavy metal adsorbents and other toxic contaminants detectors and adsorbents. | [23] Sztekler, K.; Mlonka-Mędrala, A.; Khdary, N.H.; Kalawa, W.; Nowak, W.; Mika, Ł., 2023 | |
14 | Hyper-crosslinked porous polymers (HCLPs) have gained attention because of their high surface area and porosity, low density, high chemical and thermal stability and excellent adsorption capabilities in comparison to other porous materials. Herein, we report the synthesis, characterization and gas (particularly CO2) adsorption performance of a series of novel styrene-based HCLPs. The materials were prepared in two steps. The first step involved the radical copolymerization of divinylbenzene (DVB) and 4-vinylbenzyl chloride (VBC), a non-porous gel-type polymer, which was then modified by hyper-crosslinking, generating micropores with a high surface area of more than 700 m2 g−1. The texture properties of pure and functionalized porous polymers HCLPPs. The value range of the examined samples were: SBET(m2 g−1): 277–757, Smeso (m2 g−1): 93–310, Vtot (mm3 liq g−1): 157–408, Vmicro (mm3 liq g−1): 76–226. The gas adsorption capacity of pure and functionalized porous HCLPP at 100 kPa and 25 °C was calculated as (μmol g−1): 820–110 (CO2), 130–310 (CH4), 29–90 (N2), 12–21 (H2), 12–89(O2). Compared to similar studies, the material prepared in this study showed a comparable or slightly lower CO2 adsorption capacity, but in most cases higher selectivity. | Synthesized hyper-crosslinked porous material showed a high apparent surface area and selective CO2 adsorption over CH4, N2 and H2, which significantly increased after amines functionalization. Therefore, produced porous polymers represent promising organic porous materials for CO2 uptake from gas mixtures. The results indicated that the reaction of the prepared polymer with the dendrimer was not as effective as its reaction with amines due to the partially microporous structure being too tight for the possible interaction with the branched dendrimer molecules. Based on this finding, the authors’ future proposal is the development of polymers with a mesoporous structure that may be more suitable for dendrimer loading. The prepared porous polymer structure and its amine-functionalized forms can be considered for testing as fillers into mixed-matrix membranes with improved CO2/CH4 and CO2/N2 separation performance as well. Therefore, produced porous polymers represent promising organic porous materials for CO2 uptake from gas mixtures. | [24] Setnickova, K.; Jerabek, K.; Strasak, T.; Mullerova, M.; Jandova, V.; Soukup, K.; Petrickovic, R.; Tseng, H.-H.; Uchytil, P., 2023 |
Type of Material | Indicative Examples | Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|---|---|
Zeolites | NaY, 13X | Large micropores/mesopores, medium CO2 adsorption capacity at room temperature, low production cost | Low CO2 adsorption capacity, moisture-sensitivity, high energy consumption |
Porous silica materials | M41S, SBA-n, AMS | High specific surface area, pore volume and good thermal and mechanical properties | High molecular diffusion resistance, decreased adsorption capacity at high temperature |
Metal organic frameworks (MOFs) | M-MOF-74, IRMOF-6, USO-2-Ni, Zn4O (BDC)3, (MOF-5), USO-1-Al (MIL-53) | Ease of controlling pore sizes, high selectivity of CO2, large specific surface area | Low CO2 adsorption capacity at partial pressure, complicated synthesis process, moisture sensitivity, unstable at high temperature, high production cost |
Metal oxides-based adsorbents | CaO, MgO | Dry chemical adsorbents, adsorption/desorption at medium to high temperatures | High energy consumption, complicated process, high cost for regeneration |
Technology Classification | Type of Sorption | Indicative Examples | Efficiency (%, in Descending Order) |
---|---|---|---|
Absorption | Chemical: Chemical reaction occurs between the solid sorbents and CO2. Chemisorption sustains high selectively, but it is also characterized by slow reactivity, being also energy-intensive for recycling and for the breaking of the chemical bonds. | Amines, Caustics | >90 |
Absorption | Physical: Depends on the physical properties of CO2 and the ability to engage in noncovalent interactions with the solid sorbent. Physisorption bonds are that of weak Vander-walls forces-London and Dispersion forces, also developed inside pore walls. Physisorption sustains the advantageous characteristics such as fast and high selectivity and working capacity, requiring also low recycling energy. However, there has also been reported a poor selectivity in binary or mixed gas applications. | Selexol, Rectisol, fluorinated solvents | >90 |
Adsorption | Chemical | Metal Oxides, Si based materials | >85 |
Adsorption | Physical | Carbons, Zeolites, Si based materials | >85 |
Membrane-based | Organic (celluloses, polyamides) | Polyphenyleneoxide, Polydimethylsiloxane | >80 |
Membrane-based | Inorganic | Ceramics of metallic fabrication | >80 |
No # | Thematic Area | Ref. # |
---|---|---|
10 | Organic and Biochar | [26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35] |
8 | Pharmaceutical-antibiotics | [36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43] |
5 | Inorganic and Metals | [44,45,46,47,48] |
4 | Waste | [49,50,51,52] |
1 | Pesticides | [53] |
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Kyriakopoulos, G.L.; Tsimnadis, K.; Sebos, I.; Charabi, Y. Investigating the Effect of Pore Size Distribution on the Sorption Types and the Adsorption-Deformation Characteristics of Porous Continua: The Case of Adsorption on Carbonaceous Materials. Crystals 2024, 14, 742. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst14080742
Kyriakopoulos GL, Tsimnadis K, Sebos I, Charabi Y. Investigating the Effect of Pore Size Distribution on the Sorption Types and the Adsorption-Deformation Characteristics of Porous Continua: The Case of Adsorption on Carbonaceous Materials. Crystals. 2024; 14(8):742. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst14080742
Chicago/Turabian StyleKyriakopoulos, Grigorios L., Konstantinos Tsimnadis, Ioannis Sebos, and Yassine Charabi. 2024. "Investigating the Effect of Pore Size Distribution on the Sorption Types and the Adsorption-Deformation Characteristics of Porous Continua: The Case of Adsorption on Carbonaceous Materials" Crystals 14, no. 8: 742. https://doi.org/10.3390/cryst14080742