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Article

Pseudogene TNXA Variants May Interfere with the Genetic Testing of CAH-X

by
Qizong Lao
1,*,
Kiet Zhou
1,
Megan Parker
1,
Fabio R. Faucz
2 and
Deborah P. Merke
1,2
1
National Institutes of Health Clinical Center, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
2
The Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Genes 2023, 14(2), 265; https://doi.org/10.3390/genes14020265
Submission received: 23 November 2022 / Revised: 13 January 2023 / Accepted: 14 January 2023 / Published: 19 January 2023
(This article belongs to the Section Genetic Diagnosis)
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Abstract

:
CAH-X is a hypermobility-type Ehlers–Danlos syndrome connective tissue dysplasia affecting approximately 15% of patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency (21-OHD) congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) due to contiguous deletion of CYP21A2 and TNXB genes. The two most common genetic causes of CAH-X are CYP21A1P-TNXA/TNXB chimeras with pseudogene TNXA substitution for TNXB exons 35–44 (CAH-X CH-1) and TNXB exons 40–44 (CAH-X CH-2). A total of 45 subjects (40 families) from a cohort of 278 subjects (135 families of 21-OHD and 11 families of other conditions) were found to have excessive TNXB exon 40 copy number as measured by digital PCR. Here, we report that 42 subjects (37 families) had at least one copy of a TNXA variant allele carrying a TNXB exon 40 sequence, whose overall allele frequency was 10.3% (48/467). Most of the TNXA variant alleles were in cis with either a normal (22/48) or an In2G (12/48) CYP21A2 allele. There is potential interference with CAH-X molecular genetic testing based on copy number assessment, such as with digital PCR and multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification, since this TNXA variant allele might mask a real copy number loss in TNXB exon 40. This interference most likely happens amongst genotypes of CAH-X CH-2 with an in trans normal or In2G CYP21A2 allele.

1. Introduction

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency (21-OHD; OMIM 201910) is an autosomal recessive disease of steroidogenesis that affects 1 in 15,000 in its severe classic form and 1 in 200 in its mild nonclassic form, with asymptomatic carrier prevalence estimated as 1 in 60 and 1 in 11, respectively [1,2,3]. Manifestations consistent with hypermobility-type Ehlers–Danlos syndrome connective tissue dysplasia (hEDS; OMIM 130020) are often found amongst CAH patients, with tenascin-X defects as the most commonly reported etiology [4,5,6,7,8,9]. Recent studies of large CAH cohorts in different continents revealed that approximately 15% of the CAH population has hEDS due to a contiguous gene deletion affecting both the CYP21A2 and TNXB genes [10,11,12,13], which warrants re-examination of current CAH clinical and genetic evaluation workflows [14,15,16].
The genes CYP21A2, encoding 21-hydroxylase, and TNXB, encoding tenascin-X, are mapped to the major histocompatibility complex on chromosome 6 (p21.33), with their respective 3′-UTR and last exon (exon 44) overlapping. Their locus is a typical low-copy repeat and is termed RCCX module, standing for “RP-C4-CYP21-TNX” in tandem. RP signifies RP1 encoding a serine/threonine nuclear protein kinase and pseudogene RP2 (synonyms for STK19 and STK19P, respectively); C4 signifies C4A and C4B encoding two complement component 4 isotopes; CYP21 signifies CYP21A2 and pseudogene CYP21A1P, while TNX signifies TNXB and pseudogene TNXA. These gene pairs are highly homologous, making the RCCX locus vulnerable to gene conversions and unequal crossovers, often resulting in pathogenic variants [17]. In CAH, the vast majority of pathogenic alleles are due to two mechanisms: pseudogene minor conversion, resulting in 12 common variants of CYP21A1P origin and unequal crossovers, resulting in chimeric genes (also termed 30-kb deletions), accounting for 60% and 30% of allele frequency, respectively [3,18,19,20,21]. The chimeric genes can be further categorized into CAH (CYP21A1P/CYP21A2) and CAH-X (CYP21A1P-TNXA/TNXB) chimeras (Figure 1) [22,23], affecting CYP21A2 only or both CYP21A2 and TNXB, respectively. CYP21A1P-TNXA/TNXB chimeras are responsible for the majority of known hEDS cases amongst the CAH population, known as “CAH-X”, named for CAH with tenascin-X defects [4,5,9].
EDS is a group of connective tissue disorders involving multiple genes related to collagen pathways and extracellular matrix (ECM) maintenance [24]. hEDS is the most common subtype, with an estimated prevalence of 1 in 5000 or higher, and the genetic basis is mostly unknown [25]. Concomitant hEDS in CAH has been associated with TNXB, which encodes tenascin-X, a glycoprotein crucial in ECM composition [5,6,26]. Variants/defects throughout the entire 68 kb TNXB gene have been reported to cause hEDS [27]; however, those related to CAH-X mostly enrich within a 4.1 kb span of the TNXB 3′-end (exons 32–44) that shares 92% homology with TNXA [7,8,10,11,12,13]. Two CAH-X chimeras account for the vast majority of CAH-X genotypes and also represent 30% of 30-kb deletions, or 15% of all CAH alleles: CAH-X CH-1 substitutes TNXA for TNXB exons 35–44, resulting in a null allele; while CAH-X CH-2 substitutes TNXA for TNXB exons 40–44, resulting in a dominant negative effect [8]. The TNXA substitution for TNXB at exon 35 features a 120 bp deletion (c.11435–11524+30del NM_019105.8) spanning exon and intron 35, whereas the TNXA substitution for TNXB at exon 40 features two contiguous variants of c.12150C>G (synonymous) and c.12174C>G (p.C4058W) (Figure 1). Unlike autosomal recessive CAH, the hEDS manifestation caused by these two CAH-X chimeras appears to be autosomal dominant regardless of the CAH phenotype. However, in general, CAH patients suffer more connective tissue dysplasia phenotype than their carrier counterparts, possibly due to the influence of chronic glucocorticoid exposure [7,8,11,28]. Other less common CAH-X defects include splice site variants in intron 42 and CAH-X CH3 with TNXA substitute for TNXB exons 41–44, [29,30].
The molecular genetic testing of TNXB is challenging. Although it is suitable for next-generation sequencing (NGS) platforms due to its 68 kb mass, the 3′-end (exons 32–44) has to rely on other methods due to the significant mapping interference by TNXA and its copy number variations [14,31]. Sanger is the most comprehensive and accurate methodology used for CAH and CAH-X genetic testing, but it is laborious and low-throughput [32]. We previously developed a high-throughput assay for fast and cost-effective screening of CAH-X chimeras (CH-1 and CH-2) so that laboratories can preserve Sanger for confirmation purposes [10]. The assay was an allele-specific PCR-based copy number assessment of TNXB exons 35 and 40: copy number losses in both exons warranted a call of CAH-X CH-1, whereas that in exon 40 alone warranted a call of CAH-X CH-2. The assay had an overall 99.3% (276/278) accuracy in our CAH cohort. Notably, we observed a total of 45 out of 234 true CAH-X negatives with a ≥2.5 measured copy number in TNXB exon 40, in contrast to only one true negative with an extra copy number measured in exon 35 (Figure 2).
In this study, we sought to characterize the extra TNXB exon 40 copy number measured in true CAH-X negatives. We also investigated associations between this TNXA variant and various CAH alleles, and considered potential interference with current CAH-X genotyping methodologies to further understand the complexity across RCCX modules.

2. Materials and Methods

This study was approved by the National Institutes of Health Institutional Review Board. All subjects were enrolled in an ongoing Natural History Study at the National Institutes of Health Clinical Center in Bethesda, MD, USA (NCT00250159). The cohort was composed of a total of 278 subjects (145 affected patients of 21-OHD CAH, 116 carriers of 21-OHD CAH, 3 normal relatives from 135 families, and 11 affected patients and 3 relatives of other diseases such as EDS, XY disorder of sex development and other CAH types from 11 families). All adult subjects or parents of children (<18 years old) gave written informed consent. Clinical evaluations for the diagnosis of CAH and EDS were completed as described previously [7]. All subjects had comprehensive genetic records, including a complete CAH and CAH-X genotype by a CLIA-accredited laboratory (PreventionGenetics, LLC, Marshfield, WI), as well as copy numbers of TNXB exons 35, 40, C4A, C4B genes determined as previously described [10,32,33]. For each subject, TNXA copy number was determined as “CTNXA = CC4A + CC4B − 2”, with 2 accounting for TNXB and/or CAH-X chimeras if applicable. For the analysis of TNXA locus homologous to TNXB exon 40, allele-specific PCR was conducted with the primer pair of 5′-GACCCAGAAACTCCAGGTGGGAG-3′ and 5′-CACCGAGAACTCGAAGCCCTTC-3′, followed by Sanger sequencing with primer 5′-CAATGAGGCCCTGCACAGC-3′. NC_000006.12 (Chr6: 32,008,420–32,013,023, complement) and NC_000006.12 (chr6: 32,041,153–32,109,338, complement) were used as reference for TNXA and TNXB, respectively. DNASTAR Lasergene (Madison, WI, USA) was used for sequence alignment analysis.

3. Results

Amongst the 278 subjects who underwent CAH-X screening, 45 of them from 37 unrelated families (31 with 21-OHD and 6 others) had an excessive copy number of TNXB exon 40 (2.50–5.47, with 2.50 as the cutoff value) as measured by the digital droplet PCR assay. These 45 subjects were all confirmed as true CAH-X negative with a Sanger-based methodology conducted by a CLIA-accredited laboratory (PreventionGenetics, LLC, Marshfield, WI, USA). Their disease conditions included 18 patients with 21-OHD CAH (9 salt-wasting, 8 simple virilizing and 1 nonclassic), 18 carriers of 21-OHD CAH, 3 unaffected relatives of 21-OH CAH and 6 relatives of subjects with other endocrine conditions (Table 1). Forty-two subjects (93.3%, 42/45) had at least one allele of a TNXA variant homologous to the TNXB exon 40 by carrying SNPs rs4959086(C>G) and rs77471377(C>G), forty-one of them with both SNPs in tandem and one subject with rs77471377(C>G) alone. A total of 48 TNXB-exon 40-like TNXA variant alleles were detected in these 42 subjects. All 278 subjects of the cohort had previously measured C4A and C4B copy numbers by which their respective RCCX module unit numbers were determined [33]; accordingly, their respective TNXA copy numbers were also determined. There were a total of 467 TNXA alleles in the entire cohort; therefore, the allele frequency of the TNXA variant allele responsible for the excessive ddPCR TNXB exon 40 copy number was 10.3% (48/467). Amongst the 11 subjects carrying one copy of TNXA, 10 had the TNXB-like variant as their lone TNXA allele. Amongst the 27 subjects carrying two copies of TNXA, 3 had both copies and 23 had one copy as the TNXB-like variant. Amongst the seven subjects carrying three copies of TNXA, one had all three copies, one had two copies and four had one copy as the TNXB-like TNXA variant. The two SNPs were determined as in cis in all heterozygous cases by either family genotyping or TA clone sequencing, reflecting the ddPCR methodology which detects SNPs in tandem. As a control group, twenty-nine subjects confirmed negative for CAH-X and a normal range TNXB exon 40 copy number (1.7–2.4) were tested on the TNXA locus of interest. No SNP rs77471377(C>G) was detected in this group, whereas four carried a heterozygous rs4959086(C>G).
Hence, this TNXB-like TNXA variant allele was indeed the predominant cause of the excessive TNXB exon 40 copy number measured by ddPCR. It was found most frequently in cis with a normal CYP21A2 allele, with 22 out of 48 alleles, or 45.8% in cis with 21 (or 20) normal CYP21A2 alleles in 19 subjects from 17 families. The second most frequent in cis CYP21A2 genotype was In2G; 12 (25.0%, 12/48) of the TNXA variant alleles shared a chromosome with 11 CYP21A2 In2G alleles in 10 subjects from six families. Other findings included: two families had a TNXA variant allele in cis with a CYP21A2 Q318X allele; one family each had a TNXA variant in cis with a CYP21A2 I172N, del-I172N and IV8 + 1G>A allele, respectively. We failed to determine the in cis CYP21A2 association of seven TNXA variant alleles due to absence of family genotype information. Thus, based on the 150 chromosomes with known normal CYP21A2 and the 93 chromosomes of In2G CYP21A2 (55 patients with 21-OHD CAH and 24 carriers) in our cohort, we found that at least 13.3% (20/150) and 11.8% (11/93) of unaffected and In2G CYP21A2 alleles shared a chromosome with one or more copies of this TNXA variant allele, respectively.
Three subjects with excessive ddPCR TNXB exon 40 copy number did not have a detectable TNXB-like TNXA allele, as shown in Table 1. Subject 25A had her TNXB exon 40 copy number measured as 2.62; she had one copy of TNXA determined as wild-type which matched the reference genome in this study, thus the mechanism underlying the excessive 0.62 copy of TNXB exon 40 remains unclear. Subject 33 had the TNXB exon 40 copy number measured as 2.87; two wild-type copies of TNXA were present. This was the lone case of TNXB exon 35 being measured as 2.83 (Figure 2) without further evidence of structural variation in the loci; thus, the excessive copy numbers were likely due to some variants in the HBB gene whose copy number was used to normalize the TNXB exons in the ddPCR assays. Subject 27B had 2.92 copies of TNXB exon 40 measured by ddPCR with 3 copies of TNXA, but our PCR protocol repeatedly failed to amplify these loci, leaving the mechanism unknown.

4. Discussion

Large cohort studies of patients with CAH due to 21-OHD worldwide have revealed and confirmed that approximately 15% of CAH patients carry at least one CAH-X allele, a contiguous deletion disrupting both CYP21A2 and TNXB tandem genes [10,11,12,13]. Moreover, these deletions account for approximate 30% of chimeric genes, also termed 30-kb deletions. While CAH due to CYP21A2 defects is autosomal recessive, the hypermobile EDS connective tissue dysplasia due to TNXB defects appears to be autosomal dominant, as carrying one CAH-X allele has been associated with an EDS phenotype [7,8,10]. Other than typical joint and skin conditions, CAH-X patients have about 25% prevalence of cardiac abnormalities, including congenital heart defects, such as structural valve abnormalities, left ventricular diverticulum and patent foramen ovale [7,8]. A diagnosis of CAH-X is beneficial by offering awareness and early medical intervention if indicated, but traditional clinical diagnosis of CAH-X relying on joint hypermobility and subluxations is often restricted by factors such as age, and a reliable tenascin-X serum level assay is not available [34]. As an accurate and cost-effective option, we recently suggested the inclusion of CAH-X genotyping with the standard scope of CAH genetic tests, especially for individuals carrying a “30-kb deletion” genotype, given that a large portion (30%) of this genotype are in fact CAH-X chimeras [10]. We now describe potential interference with CAH-X molecular genetic testing based on copy number assessment due to a commonly found TNXA variant allele carrying a TNXB exon 40 sequence.
The test and evaluation of CAH-X should also extend to CAH carriers who lack medical attention regarding CAH-related conditions [14,15,16]. Although hEDS manifestations are often milder compared to the CAH-X patient, carriers of a CAH-X allele are at risk of developing significant conditions, including a cardiac structural defect. In fact, since the classic CAH carrier prevalence is 1 in 60, about one third of CAH alleles are 30-kb deletions and one third of these are estimated to be CAH-X chimeras; CAH-X amongst CAH carriers alone is estimated to affect 1 in 670 in the general population. This coincides with a previous presumption that the 1 in 5000 prevalence of hEDS was grossly underestimated [25].
In order to include CAH-X chimeras into an existing CAH genetic test, Sanger sequencing followed by an allele-specific PCR with CYP779F/Tena32F primer pair remains the most accurate and comprehensive methodology. It is suitable for all conditions across the CYP21A2-TNXB exons 32–44 locus, and the test of CAH-X chimeras can be a simple add-on to the existing scope. However, this methodology is low-throughput and often restricted by a difficult 8.5 kb long-range PCR with frequent heterogeneous insert–deletions across the locus [32]. Clinical laboratories also use high-throughput methodologies, such as quantitative PCR, multiplex mini-sequencing, conversion-specific PCR (MMCP) and multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (MLPA), to conduct CAH genetic testing [14,35,36]. Among these methodologies, only the MLPA platform tests the TNXB exon 35 copy number that can be used for calling CAH-X CH-1, but TNXB exon 40 is completely out of scope. In order to evaluate TNXB status, our recently developed ddPCR-based assay may be added to these CAH methodologies. Alternatively, new assays amenable to existing platforms could be developed, but in either case, the potential influence of the pseudogene TNXA homologue should be considered.
In our previous work of developing a high-throughput CAH-X screening assay based on TNXB copy number losses, we observed that a large portion of true CAH-X negative samples (45/234) had an excessive TNXB exon 40 copy number (≥2.5) as measured by ddPCR [10]. We previously hypothesized that this was likely caused by a TNXA variant allele carrying SNPs rs77471377(C>G) and rs4959086(C>G) in tandem, which converted the locus to be TNXB-like, and thus detectable by the ddPCR assay. This TNXA variant allele was, in fact, commonly found in our CAH cohort. Although it remains as a pseudogene without affecting phenotypic outcomes, this TNXB-like TNXA variant allele may interfere genetic tests of CAH-X based on TNXB copy number assessment. For example, when a subject carries a CAH-X CH-2 chimera with at least one copy of this TNXA variant, the real TNXB exon 40 copy number loss will be masked by the latter’s homologue, creating an inevitable risk of a false negative call on CAH-X CH-2. In our large CAH cohort, 31 out of 135 21-OHD CAH families and 6 out of 11 families with other conditions carried such a TNXB-like TNXA allele, suggesting this threat of false negative CAH-X CH-2 determinations might commonly exist. However, we did not record any false negative cases in the assessment of all 278 subjects in our cohort. One explanation could be that no such TNXA variant was found in cis with any of the CAH 30-kb deletion genotypes. Since CAH-X alleles are mostly TNXA-free, with mono-modular RCCX structure, this might significantly reduce the possibility of TNXA-sourced interferences. On the other hand, masking interference from the in trans chromosome warrants consideration. The majority of TNXB-like TNXA variants were in cis with either a normal or an In2G CYP21A2 allele. Accordingly, CAH carriers with a CAH-X CH-2/normal genotype and CAH patients with a CAH-X CH-2/In2G genotype are more likely than other genotypes to encounter a false negative call. Theoretically, this chance is approximately 10%, given that the prevalence of this TNXA variant allele amongst chromosomes of normal and In2G CYP21A2 was 13.3% and 11.8%, respectively.
Although we did not have a true false negative call in our cohort, we did have an example of masking interference from the in trans chromosome (Figure 2, the outlier red dot). One CAH carrier with CAH-X CH-1/normal genotype had her TNXB exons 35 and 40 copy numbers measured as one and two, respectively, which is different from a typical one copy each of the two TNXB exons in a monoallelic CAH-X CH-1. We found that a TNXB-like TNXA allele in her normal chromosome was the cause. This would have been a case of false negative call if she had carried a CAH-X CH-2 allele instead of CAH-X CH-1, whose loss in TNXB exon 35 copy number alone warranted a correct call [10].
In the genetics of 21-OHD CAH, a minor conversion is defined as a small portion of the pseudogene CYP21A1P being converted to CYP21A2 to cause pathogenic defects, which include the 10 most common variants [3,14]. These variants have been well investigated and are currently within the scope of all standard CAH test platforms [14]. On the other hand, gene conversion in the opposite direction, from CYP21A2 to CYP21A1P, has only been documented in a few studies. Cantürk, C. et al. reported that 8.5% of CYP21A1P alleles are CYP21A2-like at the position corresponding to p.I172, which might be mistaken for a CYP21A2 duplication when using MLPA methodology [37]. Tsai, L. et al. reported that CYP21A2-like spots were commonly found throughout CYP21A1P, such as p.P30, p.G110, p.I172, p.V281, p.Q318 and p.R356 [38,39,40]. Notably, these reports were all based on healthy non-CAH populations. Although these prior reports suggested potential pseudogene interference with CYP21A2 genotyping, the true frequency or significance of this interference has not yet been established due to the lack of studies using large CAH cohorts. In our current study, we reveal that real-gene-like spots also exist in pseudogene TNXA, or in at least a locus corresponding to TNXB exon 40. This TNXB-like TNXA variant might cause a false negative call on CAH-X CH-2 if using high-throughput methods such as ddPCR. Our findings provide noteworthy insight into the nature and complexity of the RCCX modules.
Finally, our findings support the concept that standard NGS-based methodologies are not yet suitable for the genetic testing of RCCX module genes within the homologous window, not only for CYP21A2 but also for TNXB exons 32–44 [14,31,41]. Mainstream population-based databases using NGS methodologies, such as the gnomAD browser, lists allele frequency of the two SNPs of this study to be 0.1795 for rs4959086(C>G) and 0.02 for rs77471377(C>G) [42]. However, since the copy number of TNXA varies from 0–4 in each chromosome, the classical calculation of allele frequency based on two alleles in each subject is not accurate. In fact, there were a total of 467 TNXA alleles in our cohort of 278 subjects; thus, an allele frequency of the TNXA variant haplotype with both SNPs in tandem was 10.3% (48/467), suggesting an underestimation of rs7741377(C>G) allele frequency in the CAH population. One may argue that findings could be different in the general population; we therefore also evaluated the frequency of TNXA variant haplotype exclusively amongst the “normal” non-CAH chromosomes in our cohort. Because the TNXA copy number was determined in diploid, while haploid-specific copy number was not available in all subjects, our next frequency calculation was based on “chromosome” rather than “allele”. There were a total of 150 normal chromosomes in our cohort; at least 20 of them carried one or more copies of the TNXA variant haplotype, and therefore the chromosome-based frequency should be approximately 13.3% (20/150), which again agreed with our prediction of an underestimated rs7741377(C>G) allele frequency. In either case, our results suggested that the real-gene-like variants throughout pseudogenes CYP21A1P and TNXA, as well as their underestimated allele frequency, should be considered as another obstacle to overcome in addition to the commonly accepted pseudogene homologue and copy number variations in terms of designing a comprehensive CAH test platform based on NGS methodologies.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Q.L. and D.P.M.; methodology, Q.L. and K.Z.; resources, Q.L.; data curation, K.Z., M.P. and F.R.F.; writing-original draft, Q.L.; writing-review & editing, D.P.M.; visualization, K.Z.; Supervision, D.P.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was supported by the Intramural Research Program at the National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, Maryland.

Institutional Review Board Statement

This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and was reviewed and approved by the National Institutes of Health Institutional Review Board (ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier No. NCT00250159).

Informed Consent Statement

The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Data Availability Statement

The authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of this study are available with the article.

Conflicts of Interest

D.P.M. received unrelated research funds from Diurnal Limited and Neurocrine Biosciences through the National Institutes of Health Cooperative Research and Development Agreement. The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Genes 14 00265 g001 550
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of CAH and CAH-X chimeric genes [10]. (A), typical bimodular RCCX module: each pair of the homologous genes is shown in similar colors, with lighter colors representing pseudogenes; two RCCX units vulnerable for gene conversion are in brackets. (B), unequal crossover between CYP21A1P and CYP21A2, or TNXA and TNXB, results in a commonly termed “30-kb deletion” CAH genotype. (C), schemes of three major subtypes of “30-kb deletion”: top, CYP21A1P/CYP21A2 chimeric genes with intact TNXB, pathogenic for CAH; middle, CYP21A1P-TNXA/TNXB chimera CAH-X CH-1 with TNXB exons 35–44 replaced by TNXA causes CAH-X due to tenascin-X haploinsufficiency; bottom, CYP21A1P-TNXA/TNXB chimera CAH-X CH-2 with TNXB exons 40–44 replaced by TNXA causes CAH-X due to a dominant negative effect. CAH-X CH-1 has an exon 35 c.11435_11524+30 deletion (light green triangle) and an exon 40 c.12174C>G mutation (small black arrow) in tandem, whereas CAH-X CH-2 has an intact exon 35 (green triangle) and an exon 40 c.12174C>G mutation. The junction site window for each chimeric gene is shown in chameleonic colors. Schemes from CYP21A1P to TNXB intron 31, which is the boundary of RCCX module homologous repeats, are shown in scale. The size of TNXB is 68 kb.
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of CAH and CAH-X chimeric genes [10]. (A), typical bimodular RCCX module: each pair of the homologous genes is shown in similar colors, with lighter colors representing pseudogenes; two RCCX units vulnerable for gene conversion are in brackets. (B), unequal crossover between CYP21A1P and CYP21A2, or TNXA and TNXB, results in a commonly termed “30-kb deletion” CAH genotype. (C), schemes of three major subtypes of “30-kb deletion”: top, CYP21A1P/CYP21A2 chimeric genes with intact TNXB, pathogenic for CAH; middle, CYP21A1P-TNXA/TNXB chimera CAH-X CH-1 with TNXB exons 35–44 replaced by TNXA causes CAH-X due to tenascin-X haploinsufficiency; bottom, CYP21A1P-TNXA/TNXB chimera CAH-X CH-2 with TNXB exons 40–44 replaced by TNXA causes CAH-X due to a dominant negative effect. CAH-X CH-1 has an exon 35 c.11435_11524+30 deletion (light green triangle) and an exon 40 c.12174C>G mutation (small black arrow) in tandem, whereas CAH-X CH-2 has an intact exon 35 (green triangle) and an exon 40 c.12174C>G mutation. The junction site window for each chimeric gene is shown in chameleonic colors. Schemes from CYP21A1P to TNXB intron 31, which is the boundary of RCCX module homologous repeats, are shown in scale. The size of TNXB is 68 kb.
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Genes 14 00265 g002 550
Figure 2. Identification of CAH-X chimeric type by droplet digital PCR (ddPCR) [10]. The copy numbers of TNXB exons 35 and 40 determined by ddPCR were used for the call of CAH-X chimeric genes.
Figure 2. Identification of CAH-X chimeric type by droplet digital PCR (ddPCR) [10]. The copy numbers of TNXB exons 35 and 40 determined by ddPCR were used for the call of CAH-X chimeric genes.
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Table
Table 1. TNXB-like TNXA variant alleles in subjects with excessive TNXB exon 40 copy number.
Table 1. TNXB-like TNXA variant alleles in subjects with excessive TNXB exon 40 copy number.
Subject#CAH 21OHD or Other Disease StatusCYP21A2 GenotypeTNXB X40 CNV (ddPCR)Total TNXA CNVTNXA Variant (X40-like)In cis CYP21A2 Allele
1SWIn2G/In2G5.4733In2G/In2G
2SWCAH-CH1/In2G2.8911In2G
3SWR356W/In2G2.7931N/D
4SWQ318X/CAH-CH52.6211Q318X
5SWIn2G/CAH-CH52.6611In2G
6SWIn2G/In2G2.5521In2G
7SWIn2G/Q318X2.7121N/D
8SWIn2G/CAH-CH12.8711In2G
9SWCAH-CH1/IVS8+1G>A2.7211IVS8+1G>A
10SVCAH-CH1/I172N2.6411I172N
11SVIn2G/In2G2.5911In2G
12SVCAH-CH1/del-I172N2.8121del-I172N
13SVI172N/In2G2.7821N/D
14SVIn2G/E6cluster/I172N2.521N/D
15SVI172N/In2G2.5821N/D
16SVI172N/Q318X2.8611N/D
17SVI172N/Q318X2.821Q318X
12BNCdel/del-I172N2.7421del-I172N
2BcarrierIn2G/normal2.6121In2G
4AcarrierQ318X/normal2.921Q318X
6BcarrierIn2G/normal2.7621In2G
8AcarrierIn2G/normal2.9221In2G
11AcarrierIn2G/normal3.3722In2G/normal
18AcarrierIn2G/normal2.7821normal
19AcarrierCAH-CH1/normal2.8311normal
20AcarrierCAH-CH1/normal2.8421normal
21AcarrierCAH-CH5/normal2.5521normal
21CcarrierP453S/normal2.6121normal
22BcarrierV281L/normal2.5631normal
23AcarrierCAH-CH3/normal3.6322normal *
24AcarrierIn2G/normal2.6921N/D
25AcarrierI172N/normal2.6210N/A
26BcarrierCAH-CH5/normal2.8111normal
27BcarrierQ318X/normal2.923N/D †N/A
28BcarrierV281L/normal2.9531normal
29AcarrierIn2G/normal2.7721 ‡normal
20Cnormalnormal/normal2.6821normal
30Cnormalnormal/normal2.5421normal
31Anormalnormal/normal2.9321normal
32XY DSDnormal/normal3.622normal/normal
33Adrenal insufficiencynormal/normal2.8720N/A §
34Aldosterone synthase deficiencynormal/normal2.8131normal
35A11βOHD carriernormal/normal2.9221normal
3617OHD CAHnormal/normal3.9632normal/normal
37A11βOHD carriernormal/normal2.8621normal
* Two TNXA variant alleles in cis with a normal CYP21A2 within a tri-modular RCCX module. † Sequence analysis unavailable due to repeated PCR failures. ‡ A mono-allelic TNXA variant with only rs77471377(C>G). § This subject had two copies of wild-type TNXA allele and three copies measured in TNXB exon 35. The excessive copy numbers were likely due to a variant in the HBB gene whose copy number was used for normalization. This subject had two copies of TNXA variants and on copy of TNXA wild-type, not able to determine their haplotype as TNXA(v)-TNXA(v)/TNXA(wt) or TNXA(v)-TNXA(wt)/TNXA(v). Abbreviations: 21OHD, 21-hydroxylase deficiency; SW: salt-wasting 21OHD; SV: simple virilizing 21OHD; NC: non-classic 21OHD; 11βOHD: 11-β1 hydroxylase deficiency; 17OHD: 17-hydroxylase deficiency; N/A: not applicable; N/D: not determined. The suffixes of A, B and C after the subject number denote mother, father and sibling of an affected patient, respectively. CYP21A2 variants are shown in common names (ref. NM_000500.9): CAH-CHs: CYP21A1P/CYP21A2 chimeric genes with known chimera type; del: 30-kb deletions with chimera unspecified; In2G: c.293-13A/C>G; I172N: c.518T>A; E6 cluster: c.710T>A, c.713T>A, c.719T>A; V281L: c.844G>T; Q318X: c.955C>T; R356W: c.1069C>T; IVS8+1G>A: c.1118+1G>A; P453S: c.1360C>T.
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Lao, Q.; Zhou, K.; Parker, M.; Faucz, F.R.; Merke, D.P. Pseudogene TNXA Variants May Interfere with the Genetic Testing of CAH-X. Genes 2023, 14, 265. https://doi.org/10.3390/genes14020265

AMA Style

Lao Q, Zhou K, Parker M, Faucz FR, Merke DP. Pseudogene TNXA Variants May Interfere with the Genetic Testing of CAH-X. Genes. 2023; 14(2):265. https://doi.org/10.3390/genes14020265

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Lao, Qizong, Kiet Zhou, Megan Parker, Fabio R. Faucz, and Deborah P. Merke. 2023. "Pseudogene TNXA Variants May Interfere with the Genetic Testing of CAH-X" Genes 14, no. 2: 265. https://doi.org/10.3390/genes14020265

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