Mullite-Based Ceramics from Mining Waste: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- Sinter-mullite. Through sintering processing, mullite is basically obtained by reactions in the solid state by interdiffusion of aluminum, silicon and oxygen atoms. The aluminum-bearing raw materials used for the synthesis of mullite are mainly clay minerals, basically kaolinite (Al2Si2O5(OH)4) and pirofilite (4SiO2·Al2O3·H2O); other minerals such as Al2SiO5 (sillimanite, cianite and andalusite); AlO(OH) (boehmite and diaspore); gibbsite (Al(OH)3) and bauxite ((AlOx(OH)3−2x) with x = 0–1) are usually added as supplementary raw materials. Quartz (SiO2) is used as Si source. During sintering at ~500 °C, kaolinite is transformed into metakaolinite (Al2Si2O7) by the loss of structural molecules of water. Later, at higher temperature (~980 °C) metakaolinite is decomposed in Si-Al spinel and amorphous silica. The reaction between these two phases at~1200 °C origins the formation of mullite [50]. For the complete transformation of kaolinite into mullite by the sintering process, very high temperatures are required (1600–1700 °C) due to the diffusion coefficient of mullite in the grain border being very low. To reduce the mullitization temperature, it is convenient to use systems to mix raw materials at the atomic level.
- Fused-mullite. Mullite is synthesized by fusing of raw materials (alumina Bayer, quartz sand, rock crystal and fused silica) in an electric furnace at a temperature over 2000 °C until homogeneous molten is achieved. By controlled crystallization during the cooling, molten mullite is developed [59].
2. Mining Waste from the Extraction of Metals
2.1. Iron Mining Waste
2.2. Aluminum Mining Waste
2.3. Boron Mining Waste
2.4. Molybdenum Mining Waste
2.5. Lithium Mining Waste
3. Waste from Mineral Extraction
3.1. Coal Gangue
3.2. Kaolin Processing Waste
3.3. Granitic Sand Washing Waste
3.4. Ornamental Rock Waste
3.4.1. Granitic Rock Waste
3.4.2. Marble Waste
3.4.3. Quartz and Quartzite Rock Waste
3.4.4. Agate Waste
3.4.5. Gneiss and Varvite Waste
3.4.6. Rhyolite
3.4.7. Ornamental Rock-Cutting Waste
4. Final Remarks
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Name | Chemical Formula | Name | Chemical Formula |
---|---|---|---|
Albite | Na(AlSi3O8) | Goethite | FeO(OH) |
Alumina | Al2O3 | Hematite | Fe2O3 |
Andalusite | Al2SiO5 | Illite | (K,H3O)(Al, Mg, Fe)2(Si, Al)4O10 |
Andesite | (Ca,Na)Al2Si2O8 | Kaolinite | Al2Si2O5(OH)4 |
Anorthite | CaAl2Si2O8 | Magnesia | Mg(OH)2 |
Bauxite | AlOx(OH)3−2x with x = 0–1 | Magnetite | Fe2 + Fe3 + 2O4 |
Biotite | K(Mg,Fe2 + )6(Si,Al)8O20(OH)4·nH2O | Metakaolinite | Al2Si2O7 |
Boehmite | AlO(OH) | Mica | KAl2(Si3Al)O10(OH,F)2 |
Borax | Na2B4O5(OH)4·8H2O | Microcline | K(AlSi3O8) |
Calcite | CaCO3 | Montmorillonite | (Na,Ca)0.3(Al,Mg)2Si4O10(OH)2·nH2O |
Chlorite | Na0.5Al4Mg2Si7AlO18(OH)12·5(H2O) | Mullite | Al4 + 2xSi2−2xO10-x (x = 0.17–0.59) |
Cianite | Al2SiO5 | Muscovite | KAl2(Si3Al)O10(OH)2 |
Clinochlore | (Mg,Fe)6(Si,Al)4O10(OH)8 | Pirofilite | 4Al2Si4O11·H2O |
Colemanite | CaB3O4(OH)3·H2O | Plagioclase | (Na,Ca)(Si,Al)3O8 |
Cristobalite | SiO2 | Quartz | SiO2 |
Diaspore | AlO(OH) | Sapphirine | Mg4(Mg3Al9)O4[Si3Al9O36] |
Dolomite | CaMg(CO3)2 | Sillimanite | Al2SiO5 |
Enstatite | Mg2Si2O6 | Spodumene | LiAlSi2O6 |
Feldspar | (K,Na,Ca,Ba,NH4)(Si,Al)4O8 | Tincalconite | Na2B4O4(OH)4·3H2O |
Gibbsite | Al(OH)3 |
References
- Elshkaki, A.; Graedel, T.E.; Ciacci, L.; Reck, B. Copper demand, supply, and associated energy use to 2050. Glob. Environ. Chang. 2016, 39, 305–315. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Evolución Anual de la Producción Mundial de Minerales de 2005 a 2018. Available online: https://es.statista.com/estadisticas/729104/produccion-minera-mundial/ (accessed on 2 February 2021).
- Major Countries in Iron Ore Mine Production by Country 2015–2019. Available online: https://www.statista.com/statistics/267380/iron-ore-mine-production-by-country/ (accessed on 2 February 2021).
- Countries with the Largest Smelter Production of Aluminum from 2015 to 2019. Available online: https://www.statista.com/statistics/264624/global-production-of-aluminum-by-country/ (accessed on 8 February 2021).
- Major Countries in Boron Production from 2015 to 2019. Available online: https://www.statista.com/statistics/264981/major-countries-in-boron-production/ (accessed on 2 February 2021).
- Mine Production of Molybdenum Worlwide from 2010 to 2019. Available online: https://www.statista.com/statistics/598363/global-mine-production-of-molybdenum/ (accessed on 2 February 2021).
- Lithium Mine Production Worldwide from 2010 to 2018 (in Metric Tons of Lithium Content). Available online: https://www.statista.com/statistics/606684/world-production-of-lithium/ (accessed on 2 February 2021).
- Coal Production Worldwide from 1998 to 2019 (in Exajoules). Available online: https://www.statista.com/statistics/265470/global-coal-production-in-oil-equivalent/ (accessed on 8 February 2021).
- Brown, T.J.; Idoine, N.E.; Wrighton, C.E.; Raycraft, E.R.; Hobbs, S.F.; Shaw, R.A.; Everett, P.; Kresse, C.; Deady, E.A.; Bide, T. World Mineral Production 2014–2018, 2020th ed.; British Geological Survey: Keyworth, Nottingham, UK, 2020; ISBN 978-0-85272-788-1. [Google Scholar]
- Amrani, M.; Taha, Y.; El Haloui, Y.; Benzaazoua, M.; Hakkou, R. Sustainable reuse of coal mine waste: Experimental and economic assessments for embankments and pavement layer applications in Morocco. Minerals 2020, 10, 851. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Terrones-Saeta, J.M.; Suárez-Macías, J.; Linares Del Río, F.J.; Corpas-Iglesias, F.A. Study of copper leaching from mining waste in acidic media, at ambient temperature and atmospheric pressure. Minerals 2020, 10, 873. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tayebi-Khorami, M.; Edraki, M.; Corder, G.; Golev, A. Re-thinking mining waste through an integrative. Minerals 2019, 9, 286. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Rankin, W.J. 16 Towards zero waste. In Minerals, Metals and Sustainability: Meeting Future Material Needs; CSIRO Publishing: Victoria, Australia, 2011; pp. 459–525. ISBN 9780643097261. [Google Scholar]
- Rankin, W.J. Towards Zero Waste. AusIMM Bull. 2015, 2015, 32–37. [Google Scholar]
- Vriens, B.; Plante, B.; Seigneur, N.; Jamieson, H. Mine waste rock: Insights for sustainable hydrogeochemical management. Minerals 2020, 10, 728. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Glavic, P.; Pintaric, Z.N.; Bogataj, M. Process desing and sustainable development—A european perspective. Processes 2021, 9, 148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Adiansyah, J.S.; Rosano, M.; Vink, S.; Keir, G. A framework for a sustainable approach to mine tailings management: Disposal strategies. J. Clean. Prod. 2015, 108, 1050–1062. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Global Tailings Portal. Available online: https://tailing.grida.no (accessed on 2 February 2001).
- Sun, W.; Ji, B.; Khoso, S.A.; Tang, H.; Liu, R.; Wang, L.; Hu, Y. An extensive review on restoration technologies for mining tailings. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2018, 25, 33911–33925. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Xu, D.M.; Zhan, C.L.; Liu, H.X.; Lin, H.Z. A critical review on environmental implications, recycling strategies, and ecological remediation for mine tailings. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2019, 26, 35657–35669. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Davies, M.P. Impounded mine tailings: What are the failures telling us? Can. Min. Metall. Bull. 2001, 94, 53–59. [Google Scholar]
- Martí, J. 20 Years Since Aznalcóllar: Lessons Learned. Available online: https://principia.es/en/20-years-since-aznalcollar/ (accessed on 22 March 2021).
- SBS World News Australia Is Cyanide Safe to Use in Mining? Available online: https://szilviamalikgame.com/index.php/2018/11/30/is-cyanide-safe-to-use-in-mining/ (accessed on 22 March 2021).
- Alvés, R. Dozens Missing in Brazil Mine Disaster, Death Toll Uncertain. Available online: https://www.reuters.com/article/us-vale-sa-bhp-billiton-dam/dozens-missing-in-brazil-mine-disaster-death-toll-uncertain-idUSKCN0SU38I20151106 (accessed on 22 March 2021).
- Ibama Catástrofe Socioambiental Provocada Pelo Rompimento de Barragem da Mineradora Vale em Brumadinho (MG). Available online: https://pt.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ficheiro:Brumadinho,_Minas_Gerais_(47021723582).jpg (accessed on 22 March 2021).
- Žibret, G.; Lemiere, B.; Mendez, A.M.; Cormio, C.; Sinnett, D.; Cleall, P.; Szabo, K.; Carvalho, T. National mineral waste databases as an information source for assessing material recovery potential from mine waste, tailings and metallurgical waste. Minerals 2020, 10, 446. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhu, P.; Xia, B.; Li, H.; Liu, H.; Qian, G. A novel approach to recycle waste serpentine tailing for Mg/Al layered double hydroxide used as adsorption material. Environ. Eng. Sci. 2020, 38, 99–106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lu, C.; Yang, H.; Wang, J.; Tan, Q.; Fu, L. Utilization of iron tailings to prepare high-surface area mesoporous silica materials. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 736, 139483. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- de Magalhães, L.F.; França, S.; dos Santos Oliveira, M.; Peixoto, R.A.F.; Lima Bessa, S.A.; da Silva Bezerra, A.C. Iron ore tailings as a supplementary cementitious material in the production of pigmented cements. J. Clean. Prod. 2020, 274, 123260. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, Q.; Li, J.; Zhu, X.; Yao, G.; Wu, P.; Wang, Z.; Lyu, X.; Hu, S.; Qiu, J.; Chen, P.; et al. Approach to the management of gold ore tailings via its application in cement production. J. Clean. Prod. 2020, 269, 122303. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Saedi, A.; Jamshidi-Zanjani, A.; Darban, A.K. A review on different methods of activating tailings to improve their cementitious property as cemented paste and reusability. J. Environ. Manag. 2020, 270, 110881. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gao, S.; Cui, X.; Kang, S.; Ding, Y. Sustainable applications for utilizing molybdenum tailings in concrete. J. Clean. Prod. 2020, 266, 122020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tian, X.; Xu, W.; Song, S.; Rao, F.; Xia, L. Effects of curing temperature on the compressive strength and microstructure of copper tailing-based geopolymers. Chemosphere 2020, 253, 126754. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Alfonso, P.; Tomasa, O.; Domenech, L.M.; Garcia-Valles, M.; Martinez, S.; Roca, N. The use of tailings to make glass as an alternative for sustainable environmental remediation: The case of Osor, Catalonia, Spain. Minerals 2020, 10, 819. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Behera, S.K.; Ghosh, C.N.; Mishra, K.; Mishra, D.P.; Singh, P.; Mandal, P.K.; Buragohain, J.; Sethi, M.K. Utilisation of lead–zinc mill tailings and slag as paste backfill materials. Environ. Earth Sci. 2020, 79, 389. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tsaousi, G.M.; Profitis, L.; Douni, I.; Chatzitheodorides, E.; Panias, D. Development of lightweight insulating building materials from perlite wastes. Mater. Constr. 2019, 69, e175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Conde-Vázquez, C.; De Miguel-San Martín, O.; García-Herbosa, G. Artificial arenite from wastes of natural sandstone industry. Mater. Constr. 2019, 69, e178. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Gonzalez-Triviño, I.; Pascual-Cosp, J.; Moreno, B.; Benítez-Guerrero, M. Manufacture of ceramics with high mechanical properties from red mud and granite waste. Mater. Constr. 2019, 69, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lemougna, P.N.; Yliniemi, J.; Nguyen, H.; Adesanya, E.; Tanskanen, P.; Kinnunen, P.; Roning, J.; Illikainen, M. Utilisation of glass wool waste and mine tailings in high performance building ceramics. J. Build. Eng. 2020, 31, 101383. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, Y.; Zhang, Y.; Chen, T.; Zhao, Y.; Bao, S. Preparation of eco-friendly construction bricks from hematite tailings. Constr. Build. Mater. 2011, 25, 2107–2111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, Y.M. China recycling economy development and its mineral resources’ sustainable development. Met. Mine 2005, 2, 1–3. [Google Scholar]
- Ellen MacArthur Foundation. Towards the Circular Economy: Opportunities for the Consumer Goods Sector; Ellen MacArthur Foundation: Isle of Wight, UK, 2013; Volume 2. [Google Scholar]
- Ellen MacArthur Foundation. Towards the Circular Economy: An Economic and Business Rationale for an Accelerated Transition; Ellen MacArthur Foundation: Isle of Wight, UK, 2013; Volume 1. [Google Scholar]
- Sustainable Development Goals. Available online: https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/development-agenda/ (accessed on 8 February 2021).
- Mullite Mineral Data. Available online: http://webmineral.com/data/Mullite.shtml#.YAirmRZ7lhF (accessed on 8 February 2021).
- Yan, K.; Guo, Y.; Liu, D.; Ma, Z.; Cheng, F. Thermal decomposition and transformation mechanism of mullite with the action of sodium carbonate. J. Solid State Chem. 2018, 265, 326–331. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schneider, H.; Schreuer, J.; Hildmann, B. Structure and properties of mullite—A review. J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 2008, 28, 329–344. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Santos, T.; Hennetier, L.; Costa, V.A.F.; Costa, L.C. Microwave vs conventional porcelain firing: Macroscopic properties. Int. J. Appl. Ceram. Technol. 2020, 17, 2277–2285. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Martín-Márquez, J.; Rincón, J.M.; Romero, M. Mullite development on firing in porcelain stoneware bodies. J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 2010, 30, 1599–1607. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Romero, M.; Pérez, J.M. Relation between the microstructure and technological properties of porcelain stoneware. A review. Mater. Constr. 2015, 65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Cheraitia, A.; Redjimi, Z.; Bououdina, M. Novel mullite-cordierite ceramic refractory fabricated from halloysite and talc. Int. J. Appl. Ceram. Technol. 2021, 18, 70–80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Halder, K.; Roy, D.; Das, S. A comparative electrical study of nano-crystalline mullite with low dielectric loss due to incorporation of tungsten and molybdenum ion: Their uses in electronic industries. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Electron. 2015, 26, 5803–5811. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shibuya, T.; Mizuno, T.; Iuchi, A.; Hasegawa, M. Formation of mullite coating by aerosol deposition and microstructural change after heat exposure. Mater. Trans. 2020, 61, 540–547. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kanwal, S.; Thakare, J.G.; Pandey, C.; Singh, I.; Mahapatra, M.M. Characterization of slurry-based mullite coating deposited on P91 steel welds. J. Aust. Ceram. Soc. 2019, 55, 519–528. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Weinberg, A.V.; Goeuriot, D.; Poirier, J.; Varona, C.; Chaucherie, X. Mullite–zirconia composite for the bonding phase of refractory bricks in hazardous waste incineration rotary kiln. J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 2021, 41, 995–1002. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chou, Y.S.; Canfield, N.; Bonnett, J.F.; Hardy, J.S.; Stevenson, J.W. Thermal, mechanical, and electrical properties of LSCo/mullite composite contact materials for solid oxide fuel cells. Int. J. Appl. Ceram. Technol. 2020, 17, 2051–2061. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Andrade, R.M.; Araújo, A.J.; Alves, H.P.; Grilo, J.P.; Dutra, R.P.; Campos, L.F.; Macedo, D.A. On the physico-mechanical, electrical and dielectric properties of mullite-glass composites. Ceram. Int. 2019, 45, 18509–18517. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Anggono, J. Mullite ceramics: Its properties structure and synthesis. Mullite Ceram. Prop. Struct. Synth. 2005, 7, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Krenzel, T.F.; Schreuer, J.; Laubner, D.; Cichocki, M.; Schneider, H. Thermo-mechanical properties of mullite ceramics: New data. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 2019, 102, 416–426. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ilić, S.; Babić, B.; Bjelajac, A.; Stoimenov, N.; Kljajević, L.; Pošarac–Marković, M.; Matović, B. Structural and morphological characterization of iron-doped sol-gel derived mullite powders. Ceram. Int. 2020, 46, 13107–13113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Satoshi, S.; Contreras, C.; Juárez, H.; Aguilera, A.; Serrato, J. Homogeneous precipitation and thermal phase transformation of mullite ceramic precursor. Int. J. Inorg. Mater. 2001, 3, 625–632. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- El-Bialy, S.H.; El-Masry, M.A.A.; El-Saeed, M.A.M.; El-Kady, G.M.M. Application of taguchi methodology on the preparation of mullite precursor by hydrolysis method. Arab J. Nucl. Sci. Appl. 2017, 50, 131–135. [Google Scholar]
- Anggono, J.; Derby, B. Pyrolysis of aluminium loaded polymethylsiloxanes: The influence of Al/PMS ratio on mullite formation. J. Mater. Sci. 2010, 45, 233–241. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xu, J.P.; Erickson, D.; Roy, S.; Sarin, V. Protective CVD mullite coatings on single-crystal silicon substrates. Jom 2013, 65, 567–573. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hossain, S.K.S.; Pyare, R.; Roy, P.K. Synthesis of in-situ mullite foam using waste rice husk ash derived sol by slip-casting route. Ceram. Int. 2020, 46, 10871–10878. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Serra, M.F.; Conconi, M.S.; Gauna, M.R.; Suárez, G.; Aglietti, E.F.; Rendtorff, N.M. Mullite (3Al2O3·2SiO2) ceramics obtained by reaction sintering of rice husk ash and alumina, phase evolution, sintering and microstructure. J. Asian Ceram. Soc. 2016, 4, 61–67. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Restrepo, E.; Vargas, F.; López, E.; Baudín, C. The potential of La-containing spent catalysts from fluid catalytic cracking as feedstock of mullite based refractories. J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 2020, 40, 6162–6170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mohammadi, A.; Salehi, E.; Aghazadeh, H.; Ramezani, A.; Eidi, B. An efficient method for recycling spent residue cat-cracking catalysts (SRC) to prepare broadly-applicable mullite-based wear-resistant ceramics. Appl. Clay Sci. 2020, 187, 105488. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vargas, F.; Restrepo, E.; Rodríguez, J.E.; Vargas, F.; Arbeláez, L.; Caballero, P.; Arias, J.; López, E.; Latorre, G.; Duarte, G. Solid-state synthesis of mullite from spent catalysts for manufacturing refractory brick coatings. Ceram. Int. 2018, 44, 3556–3562. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kongkajun, N.; Cherdhirunkorn, B.; Borwornkiatkaew, W.; Chakartnarodom, P. Utilization of aluminium buffing dust as a raw material for the production of mullite. J. Met. Mater. Miner. 2019, 29, 71–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pype, J.; Michielsen, B.; Mullens, S.; Meynen, V. Impact of inorganic waste fines on structure of mullite microspheres by reaction sintering. J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 2018, 38, 2612–2620. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Khalil, N.M.; Algamal, Y. Recycling of ceramic wastes for the production of high performance mullite refractories. Silicon 2020, 12, 1557–1565. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- López-Cuevas, J.; Interial-Orejón, E.; Gutiérrez-Chavarría, C.A.; Rendón-Ángeles, J.C. Synthesis and characterization of cordierite, mullite and cordierite-mullite ceramic materials using coal fly ash as raw material. MRS Adv. 2017, 2, 3865–3872. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yugeswaran, S.; Ananthapadmanabhan, P.V.; Kobayashi, A.; Lusvarghi, L. Transferred arc plasma processed mullite from coal ash and bauxite. Ceram. Int. 2011, 37, 3437–3444. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Guerreiro, G.G.; Vieira de Andrade, F.; Roberto de Freitas, M. Carbon nanostructures based-adsorbent obtained from iron ore tailings. Ceram. Int. 2020, 46, 29271–29281. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Amaral, I.B.C.; Prat, B.V.; Dos Reis, A.B. Effect of iron mining tailings as a red ceramic additive for decreased sintering temperature. Rev. Mater. 2020, 25, 1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mendes Protasio, F.N.; Ribeiro de Avillez, R.; Letichevsky, S.; de Andrade Silva, F. The use of iron ore tailings obtained from the Germano dam in the production of a sustainable concrete. J. Clean. Prod. 2021, 278, 123929. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- do Carmo e Silva Defáveri, K.; dos Santos, L.F.; Franco de Carvalho, J.M.; Peixoto, R.A.F.; Brigolini, G.J. Iron ore tailing-based geopolymer containing glass wool residue: A study of mechanical and microstructural properties. Constr. Build. Mater. 2019, 220, 375–385. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Das, S.K.; Kumar, S.; Ramachandrarao, P. Exploitation of iron ore tailing for the development of ceramic tiles. Waste Manag. 2000, 20, 725–729. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ghosh, I.; Mondal, A.K.; Singh, N.; Das, S.K. Evaluation of iron ore tailings for the production of building materials. Ind. Ceram. 2011, 31, 115–119. [Google Scholar]
- Chen, Y.; Zhang, Y.; Chen, T.; Liu, T.; Huang, J. Preparation and characterization of red porcelain tiles with hematite tailings. Constr. Build. Mater. 2013, 38, 1083–1088. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fontes, W.C.; Franco de Carvalho, J.M.; Andrade, L.C.R.; Segadães, A.M.; Peixoto, R.A.F. Assessment of the use potential of iron ore tailings in the manufacture of ceramic tiles: From tailings-dams to “brown porcelain”. Constr. Build. Mater. 2019, 206, 111–121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Peterson, R.; Tabereaux, A. Aluminum production. In Treatise on Process Metallurgy; Elsevier: Stockholm, Sweden, 2014; pp. 839–917. ISBN 0080969895. [Google Scholar]
- Ayres, R.U.; Holmberg, J.; Andersson, B. Materials and the global environment: Waste mining in the 21st century. MRS Bull. 2001, 26, 477–480. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Alumina Production Worldwide by Country 2019. Available online: https://www.statista.com/statistics/264963/global-alumina-production-by-country/ (accessed on 8 February 2021).
- Khairul, M.A.; Zanganeh, J.; Moghtaderi, B. The composition, recycling and utilisation of Bayer red mud. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2019, 141, 483–498. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yao, L.; Gao, W.; Ma, X.; Fu, H. Properties analysis of asphalt binders containing Bayer red mud. J. Renew. Mater. 2020, 13, 1122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Zhao, Y.; Chen, P.; Wang, S.; Ji, Y.; Wang, Y.; Wu, B.; Liu, R. Utilization of Bayer red mud derived from bauxite for belite-ferroaluminate cement production. J. Renew. Mater. 2020, 8, 1531–1541. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hu, Y.; Liang, S.; Yang, J.; Chen, Y.; Ye, N.; Ke, Y.; Tao, S.; Xiao, K.; Hu, J.; Hou, H.; et al. Role of Fe species in geopolymer synthesized from alkali-thermal pretreated Fe-rich Bayer red mud. Constr. Build. Mater. 2019, 200, 398–407. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Xu, X.; Song, J.; Li, Y.; Wu, J.; Liu, X.; Zhang, C. The microstructure and properties of ceramic tiles from solid wastes of Bayer red muds. Constr. Build. Mater. 2019, 212, 266–274. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, S.; Guan, X.; Zhang, S.; Dou, Z.; Feng, C.; Zhang, H.; Luo, S. Sintered Bayer red mud based ceramic bricks: Microstructure evolution and alkalis immobilization mechanism. Ceram. Int. 2017, 43, 13004–13008. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, H.; Qu, Y.; Lu, Y.; Chang, Z.; Yue, Y. Structural, thermal properties and chemical durability of aluminosilicate glasses prepared by Bayer red mud. Ionics 2017, 23, 2091–2101. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, W.; Chen, W.; Liu, H.; Han, C. Recycling of waste red mud for production of ceramic floor tile with high strength and lightweight. J. Alloys Compd. 2018, 748, 876–881. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, W.; Chen, W.; Liu, H. Recycling of waste red mud for fabrication of SiC/mullite composite porous ceramics. Ceram. Int. 2019, 45, 9852–9857. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- da Silva, V.J.; da Silva, M.F.; Gonçalves, W.P.; de Menezes, R.R.; de Araújo Neves, G.; de Lucena Lira, H.; de Lima Santana, L.N. Porous mullite blocks with compositions containing kaolin and alumina waste. Ceram. Int. 2016, 42, 15471–15478. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Global Boron Market Demand by Application in 2014 and 2015. Available online: https://www.statista.com/statistics/449769/worldwide-boron-market-demand-by-application/ (accessed on 8 February 2021).
- Erdogmus, E. Combined effect of waste colemanite and silica fume on properties of cement mortar. Sci. Eng. Compos. Mater. 2014, 21, 369–375. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Durgun, M.Y.; Sevinç, A.H. High temperature resistance of concretes with GGBFS, waste glass powder, and colemanite ore wastes after different cooling conditions. Constr. Build. Mater. 2019, 196, 66–81. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Uysal, M.; Al-mashhadani, M.M.; Aygörmez, Y.; Canpolat, O. Effect of using colemanite waste and silica fume as partial replacement on the performance of metakaolin-based geopolymer mortars. Constr. Build. Mater. 2018, 176, 271–282. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kurama, S.; Kara, A.; Kurama, H. The effect of boron waste in phase and microstructural development of a terracotta body during firing. J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 2006, 26, 755–760. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cicek, B.; Karadagli, E.; Duman, F. Valorisation of boron mining wastes in the production of wall and floor tiles. Constr. Build. Mater. 2018, 179, 232–244. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Karadagli, E.; Cicek, B. Boron mining and enrichment waste: A promising raw material for porcelain tile production. Int. J. Appl. Ceram. Technol. 2020, 17, 563–572. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mine Production of Molybdenum Worldwide in 2019, by Countries. Available online: https://www.statista.com/statistics/910853/global-mine-production-of-molybdenum-by-country/ (accessed on 2 February 2021).
- Gao, S.; Zhao, G.; Guo, L.; Zhou, L.; Cui, X.; Yang, H. Mechanical properties of circular thin-tubed molybdenum tailing concrete stubs. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 268, 121215. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Siddique, S.; Jang, J.G. Assessment of molybdenum mine tailings as filler in cement mortar. J. Build. Eng. 2020, 31, 101322. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Karhu, M.; Lagerbom, J.; Solismaa, S.; Honkanen, M.; Ismailov, A.; Räisänen, M.L.; Huttunen-Saarivirta, E.; Levänen, E.; Kivikytö-Reponen, P. Mining tailings as raw materials for reaction-sintered aluminosilicate ceramics: Effect of mineralogical composition on microstructure and properties. Ceram. Int. 2019, 45, 4840–4848. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Major Countries in Worldwide Lithium Mine Production from 2014 to 2019. Available online: https://www.statista.com/statistics/268789/countries-with-the-largest-production-output-of-lithium/tion-output-of-lithium/ (accessed on 8 February 2021).
- Projection of Total Worldwide Lithium Supply from 2018 to 2025. Available online: https://www.statista.com/statistics/452010/projected-demand-for-lithium-in-batteries-by-type-globally/ (accessed on 2 August 2020).
- Salakjani, N.K.; Singh, P.; Nikoloski, A.N. Production of Lithium–A literature review part 1: Pretreatment of spodumene. Miner. Process. Extr. Metall. Rev. 2020, 41, 335–348. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Salakjani, N.K.; Singh, P.; Nikoloski, A.N. Production of Lithium—A literature review. Part 2. Extraction from spodumene. Miner. Process. Extr. Metall. Rev. 2019, 1–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rioyo, J.; Tuset, S.; Grau, R. Lithium extraction from spodumene by the traditional sulfuric acid process: A review. Miner. Process. Extr. Metall. Rev. 2020, 1–10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lemougna, P.N.; Yliniemi, J.; Ismailov, A.; Levanen, E.; Tanskanen, P.; Kinnunen, P.; Roning, J.; Illikainen, M. Spodumene tailings for porcelain and structural materials: Effect of temperature (1050-1200 °C) on the sintering and properties. Miner. Eng. 2019, 141, 105843. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Distribution of Selected Energy Carriers as a Share of Non Renewable Energy Production Worldwide from 2007 to 2018. Available online: https://www.statista.com/statistics/263232/global-production-of-non-renewable-energy-resources/ (accessed on 8 February 2021).
- Leading Hard Coal Producing Countries Worldwide in 2017 (in Million Metric Tons). Available online: https://www.statista.com/statistics/264775/top-10-countries-based-on-hard-coal-production/ (accessed on 8 February 2021).
- Li, J.; Wang, J. Comprehensive utilization and environmental risks of coal gangue: A review. J. Clean. Prod. 2019, 239, 117946. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ashfaq, M.; Lal, M.H.; Moghal, A.A.B.; Murthy, V.R. Carbon footprint analysis of coal gangue in geotechnical engineering applications. Indian Geotech. J. 2020, 50, 646–654. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Moghadam, M.J.; Ajalloeian, R.; Hajiannia, A. Preparation and application of alkali-activated materials based on waste glass and coal gangue: A review. Constr. Build. Mater. 2019, 221, 84–98. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Frasson, B.J.; Pinto, R.C.A.; Rocha, J.C. Influence of different sources of coal gangue used as aluminosilicate powder on the mechanical properties and microstructure of alkali-activated cement. Mater. Constr. 2019, 69, E119–E137. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Mohammadi, R.; Azadmehr, A.; Maghsoudi, A. Enhancing of competitive adsorptive removal of zinc and manganese from aqueous solution by iron oxide-combusted coal gangue composite. Sep. Sci. Technol. 2020, 55, 3343–3361. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mohammadi, R.; Azadmehr, A.; Maghsoudi, A. Fabrication of the alginate-combusted coal gangue composite for simultaneous and effective adsorption of Zn(II) and Mn(II). J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2019, 7, 103494. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Motesharezadeh, B.; Ahmadiyan, E.; Alikhani, H.A.; Azarnivand, H. The use of coal gangue as a cultivation bed conditioner in forage maize inoculated with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 2017, 48, 1266–1279. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ji, H.; Fang, M.; Huang, Z.; Chen, K.; Xu, Y.; Liu, Y.; Huang, J. Effect of La2O3 additives on the strength and microstructure of mullite ceramics obtained from coal gangue and γ-Al2O3. Ceram. Int. 2013, 39, 6841–6846. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dong, W.; Bao, Q.; Gu, X.; Shen, H.; Yang, J. Dry-pressing preparation of mullite columnar structure using waste gangue during firing and its properties. J. Ceram. Soc. Jpn. 2017, 125, 75–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Li, G.; Ma, H.; Tian, Y.; Wang, K.; Zhou, Y.; Wu, Y.; Zou, X.; Hao, J.; Bai, P. Feasible recycling of industrial waste coal gangue for preparation of mullite based ceramic proppant. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2017, 230, 12020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Liu, Y.; Lian, W.; Su, W.; Luo, J.; Wang, L. Synthesis and mechanical properties of mullite ceramics with coal gangue and wastes refractory as raw materials. Int. J. Appl. Ceram. Technol. 2020, 17, 205–210. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Pohl, W.L. Economic Geology: Principles and Practice. Metals, Minerals, Coal and Hydrocarbons—Introduction to Formation and Sustainable Exploitation of Minerals Deposits; Springer-Verlag, Ed.; Wiley-Blac.: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2011; ISBN 978-1-4443-3663-4. [Google Scholar]
- Murray, H.H. Applied Clay Mineralogy. Occurrences, Processing and Application of Kaolins, Bentonite, Palygorskitesepiolite, and Common Clays; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2007; Volume 2, ISBN 9780444517012. [Google Scholar]
- Brasileiro, M.I.; Rodrigues, A.W.B.; Menezes, R.R.; Neves, G.A.; Santana, L.N.L. The Kaolin Residue and Its Use for Production of Mullite Bodies. In Sustainable Development—Energy, Engineering and Technologies—Manufacturing and Environment; Ghenai, C., Ed.; Intechopen: Rijeka, Croatia, 2012; pp. 116–142. ISBN 978-953-51-0165-9. [Google Scholar]
- Maia, A.Á.B.; Dias, R.N.; Angélica, R.S.; Neves, R.F. Influence of an aging step on the synthesis of zeolite NaA from Brazilian Amazon kaolin waste. J. Mater. Res. Technol. 2019, 8, 2924–2929. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- dos Santos de Castro, P.R.; Maia, A.Á.B.; Angélica, R.S. Study of the thermal stability of faujasite zeolite synthesized from kaolin waste from the Amazon. Mater. Res. 2019, 22, e20190321. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- do Rosario Pinheiro, D.; Gonçalves, L.R.; de Sena, R.L.P.; Martelli, M.C.; de Freitas Neves, R.; da Paixão Ribeiro, N.F. Industrial kaolin waste as raw material in the synthesis of the SAPO-34 molecular sieve. Mater. Res. 2020, 23, e20200043. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- de Almeida, E.P.; de Brito, I.P.; Ferreira, H.C.; Lira, H. de L.; de Lima Santana, L.N.; de Araújo Neves, G. Cordierite obtained from compositions containing kaolin waste, talc and magnesium oxide. Ceram. Int. 2018, 44, 1719–1725. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brasileiro, M.I.; Oliveira, D.H.S.; Lira, H.L.; de Lima Santana, L.N.; Neves, G.A.; Novaes, A.P.; Sasak, J.M. Mullite preparation from kaolin residue. Mater. Sci. Forum 2006, 530–531, 625–630. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Brasileiro, M.I.; Menezes, R.R.; Farias, M.O.; Lira, H.L.; Neves, G.A.; Santana, L.N.L. Use of kaolin processing waste for the production of mullite bodies. Mater. Sci. Forum 2008, 591–593, 799–804. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Menezes, R.R.; Brasileiro, M.I.; Santana, L.N.L.; Neves, G.A.; Lira, H.L.; Ferreira, H.C. Utilization of kaolin processing waste for the production of porous ceramic bodies. Waste Manag. Res. 2008, 26, 362–368. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Menezes, R.R.; Brasileiro, M.I.; Gonçalves, W.P.; de Lima Santana, L.N.; Neves, G.A.; Ferreira, H.S.; Ferreira, H.C. Statistical design for recycling kaolin processing waste in the manufacturing of mullite-based ceramics. Mater. Res. 2009, 12, 201–209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Menezes, R.; Farias, F.; Oliveira, M.F.; de Lima Santana, L.N.; Neves, G.A.; Lira, H.L.; Ferreira, H.C. Kaolin processing waste applied in the manufacturing of ceramic tiles and mullite bodies. Waste Manag. Res. 2009, 27, 78–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- de Brito, I.P.; de Almeida, E.P.; de Araújo Neves, G.; de Lucena Lira, H.; Menezes, R.R.; da Silva, V.J.; de Lima Santana, L.N. Development of cordierite/mullite composites using industrial wastes. Int. J. Appl. Ceram. Technol. 2021, 18, 253–261. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Raigón-Pichardo, M.; García-Ramos, G.; Sánchez-Soto, P.J. Characterization of a waste washing solid product of mining granitic tin-bearing sands and its application as ceramic raw material. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 1996, 17, 109–124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sánchez-Soto, P.J.; Eliche-Quesada, D.; Martínez-Martínez, S.; Garzón-Garzón, E.; Pérez-Villarejo, L.; Rincón, J.M. The effect of vitreous phase on mullite and mullite-based ceramic composites from kaolin wastes as by-products of mining, sericite clays and kaolinite. Mater. Lett. 2018, 223, 154–158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alves, J.O.; Junca, E.; Grillo, F.F.; Rodrigues, G.F.; Espinosa, D.C.R.; Tenório, J.A.S. Characterization of mineral wools obtained from ornamental rock wastes. REM Int. Eng. J. 2018, 71, 425–429. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Monteiro, S.N.; Peçanha, L.A.; Vieira, C.M.F. Reformulation of roofing tiles body with addition of granite waste from sawing operations. J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 2004, 24, 2349–2356. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vieira, C.M.F.; Soares, T.M.; Sánchez, R.; Monteiro, S.N. Incorporation of granite waste in red ceramics. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2004, 373, 115–121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Torres, P.; Fernandes, H.R.; Agathopoulos, S.; Tulyaganov, D.U.; Ferreira, J.M.F. Incorporation of granite cutting sludge in industrial porcelain tile formulations. J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 2004, 24, 3177–3185. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Torres, P.; Manjate, R.S.; Quaresma, S.; Fernandes, H.R.; Ferreira, J.M.F. Development of ceramic floor tile compositions based on quartzite and granite sludges. J. Eur. Ceram. Soc. 2007, 27, 4649–4655. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- ISO 13006. Ceramic Tiles - Definitions, Classification, Characteristics and Marking; ISO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2018. [Google Scholar]
- Pazniak, A.; Barantseva, S.; Kuzmenkova, O.; Kuznetsov, D. Effect of granitic rock wastes and basalt on microstructure and properties of porcelain stoneware. Mater. Lett. 2018, 225, 122–125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- El-Maghraby, A.; ElMaaty, M.A.A.; Khater, G.A.; Mostafa, N.Y. Utilization of grantitoid rocks in taif area as raw materials in ceramic bodies. J. Am. Sci. 2010, 6, 799–809. [Google Scholar]
- Acchar, W.; Ramalho, E.G.; Fonseca, Y.A.; Hotza, D.; Segadães, A.M. Using granite rejects to aid densification and improve mechanical properties of alumina bodies. J. Mater. Sci. 2005, 40, 3905–3909. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hernández-Crespo, M.S.; Rincón, J.M. New porcelainized stoneware materials obtained by recycling of MSW incinerator fly ashes and granite sawing residues. Ceram. Int. 2001, 27, 713–720. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Segadães, A.M.; Carvalho, M.A.; Acchar, W. Using marble and granite rejects to enhance the processing of clay products. Appl. Clay Sci. 2005, 30, 42–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yeşilay, S.; Çakı, M.; Ergun, H. Usage of marble wastes in traditional artistic stoneware clay body. Ceram. Int. 2017, 43, 8912–8921. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Silva, M.C.A.; Leão, V.A.; Reis, E.L. Incorporation of quartzite fines in the production of red ceramics. J. Clean. Prod. 2020, 288, 125098. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Carreiro, M.E.A.; Santos, R.C.; Silva, V.J.; Lira, H.L.; Neves, G.A.; Menezes, R.R.; Santana, L.N.L. Resíduo de quartzito-matéria-prima alternativa para uso em massas de cerâmica estrutural. Ceramica 2016, 62, 170–178. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Silva, K.R.; Campos, L.F.A.; De Lima Santana, L.N. Use of experimental design to evaluate the effect of the incorporation of quartzite residues in ceramic mass for porcelain tile production. Mater. Res. 2018, 22, e20180388. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- De Medeiros, P.S.S.; Lira, H.D.L.; Rodriguez, M.A.; Menezes, R.R.; Neves, G.D.A.; Santana, L.N.D.L. Incorporation of quartzite waste in mixtures used to prepare sanitary ware. J. Mater. Res. Technol. 2019, 8, 2148–2156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Correia, S.L.; Dienstmann, G.; Folgueras, M.V.; Segadaes, A.M. Effect of quartz sand replacement by agate rejects in triaxial porcelain. J. Hazard. Mater. 2009, 163, 315–322. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Junkes, J.A.; Prates, P.B.; Hotza, D.; Segadães, A.M. Combining mineral and clay-based wastes to produce porcelain-like ceramics: An exploratory study. Appl. Clay Sci. 2012, 69, 50–57. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vieira, C.M.F.; Teixeira, S.S.; Toledo, R.; de Souza, S.D.C.; Monteiro, S.N. Electric Porcelain with ornamental rock sawing waste, Part 1: Microstructutal evolution, physical and mechanical properties. Rev. Matér. 2006, 11, 427–434. [Google Scholar]
- Kara, A.; Kayaci, K.; Küçüker, A.S.; Bozkurt, V.; Üçbas, Y.; Özdamar, S. Use of rhyolite as flux in porcelain tile production. Ind. Ceram. 2009, 29, 71–81. [Google Scholar]
- Silva, M.A.; Paes, H.R.; Holanda, J.N.F. Reuse of ornamental rock-cutting waste in aluminous porcelain. J. Environ. Manage. 2011, 92, 936–940. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Souza, A.J.; Pinheiro, B.C.A.; Holanda, J.N.F. Processing of floor tiles bearing ornamental rock-cutting waste. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 2012, 210, 1898–1904. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Reference | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | CaO | MgO | Na2O | K2O | TiO2 | P2O5 | MnO | LOI |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[79] | 39.40–63.32 | 1.22–1.42 | 32.31–55.61 | 0.08–0.36 | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | 2.33–3.42 |
[80] | 19.84–21.63 | 11.91–13.25 | 66.15–72.21 | --- | 0.71–0.84 | --- | 1.25–1.53 | --- | --- | --- | nd |
[81] | 24.4 | 10.95 | 44.52 | 6.2 | 0.99 | 0.28 | 0.86 | 0.42 | 2.78 | --- | 6.95 |
[82] | 15.78–20.45 | 13.19–18.81 | 57.32–67.44 | 0.18–0.34 | --- | --- | 0.21–0.28 | --- | 0–0.66 | 1.49–2.62 | 7.3–9.4 |
Reference | Percentage of Use (wt.%) | Additional Raw Materials (wt.%) | Shaping Method | Sintering Conditions |
---|---|---|---|---|
[79] | 30–50 | Clay (35–60) Fluxing minerals (0–15) | UP; 25–30 MPa ∅ 50 mm 110 × 55 mm | 1060–1200 °C 10 °C/min |
[80] | 60 | Kaolinitic clay (40) | UP; 30 MPa 50 × 50 mm 110 × 55 mm | 850–1000 °C 1 h |
[81] | 50–70 | Kaolin (25) Quartz sand (5–25) | UP; 20 MPa 60 × 35 × 5 mm | 1150–1250 °C 5 °C/min; 30 min |
[82] | 100 | nr | UP; 10 MPa 50 × 50 × 5 mm | 1200 °C 10 °C/min; 2 h |
Reference | Final Material | Compressive Strength (MPa) | Flexural Strength (MPa) | Water Absorption (%) | Apparent Density (g/cm3) | Firing Shrinkage (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[79] | Ceramic tiles | nd | 17–31 | <0.5–16.5 | nd | 0.07–7.00 |
[80] | Ceramic bricks and pavement blocks | 15–70 | nd | 6–8 | 2.4–2.7 | nd |
[81] | Porcelain tiles | nd | 30–75 | <0.5–17 | nd | 5–16 |
[82] | Porcelain tiles | nd | 53.41 | 0.34 | 3.63 | 26.51 |
Reference | Waste | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | CaO | Na2O | K2O | TiO2 | SO3 | LOI |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[93,94] | Red mud | 33.57 | 27.66 | 7.56 | 15.26 | 3.54 | 1.76 | 3.36 | --- | 7.29 |
[95] | Alumina waste | 1.40 | 90.90 | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | 7.00 | nd |
Reference | Mining Waste | Percentage of Use (wt.%) | Additional Raw Materials (wt.%) | Shaping Method | Sintering Conditions |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
[93] | Red mud | 65.8–7.0 | Kaolin (28.2–30) Ammonium molybdate (0–6) | UP; 25 MPa ∅ 25 mm 70 × 6 × 6 mm | 1150–1200 °C 3 °C/min; 2 h |
[94] | Red mud | 23–29 | SiC (35–44) Al(OH)3 (15) V2O5 (3) AlF3 (4) Graphite (5–20) | UP; 20 MPa 35 × 10 mm | 1150–1350 °C 2 °C/min; 3 h |
[95] | Alumina waste | 48–56 | Kaolin (44–52) | UP; 33–66 MPa 30 × 5 × 5 mm | 1450–1500 °C 5 °C/min; 1 h |
Reference | Mining Waste | Final Material | Flexural Strength (MPa) | Water Absorption (%) | Apparent Density (g/cm3) | Firing Shrinkage (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[93] | Red mud | Ceramic floor tile | 153–195 | 7–27 | 1.45–1.83 | nd |
[94] | Red mud | SiC/mullite composite porous ceramics | 8–68 | nd | nd | nd |
[95] | Alumina waste | Porous mullite blocks | 46–56 | 17–18 | nd | 10–11 |
Reference | Waste | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | CaO | MgO | Na2O | K2O | B2O3 | LOI |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[100] | (1) | 15.83 | 1.06 | 0.24 | 20.66 | 19.84 | 2.58 | 0.63 | 3.99 | 34.75 |
[101,102] | (2) | 0.39–19.81 | 0.11–0.74 | 0.13–0.33 | 23.31–52.75 | 0.60–8.96 | 0.00–1.34 | 0.00–0.17 | 16.37–31.11 | 14.68–30.74 |
Reference | Mining Waste | Percentage of Use (wt.%) | Additional Raw Materials (wt.%) | Shaping Method | Sintering Conditions |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
[100] | Tincalconite | 2–16 | Clay (60) Feldespatic waste (24–40) | UP; 16 MPa 110 × 55 × 6 mm | 1050–1150 °C 2 °C/min; 1 h |
[101] | Colemanite | 1–14.80 | nr | UP 15 × 5 × 5 mm | 1120–1195 °C 4 min |
[102] | Colemanite | 1.10–8.56 | nr | UP ∅ 50 mm 5 × 10 cm | 1180–1230 °C 4 min |
Reference | Mining Waste | Final Material | Flexural Strength (MPa) | Water Absorption (%) | Firing Shrinkage (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
[100] | Tincalconite | Terracota tiles | 16–44 | 0.1–14 | 3.0–8.5 |
[101] | Colemanite | Wall and floor tiles | 38.43 | 0.49 | 6.8 |
[102] | Colemanite | Porcelain tiles | 44.80 | 0.01 | 7.4 |
Reference | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | CaO | MgO | Na2O | K2O | LOI |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[106] | 73.2 | 11.1 | 2.93 | 1.95 | 4.84 | 3.45 | 1.51 | nd |
Final material | Percentage of use (wt.%) | Additional raw materials (wt.%) | Shaping method | Sintering conditions | Compressive strength (MPa) | Apparent density (g/cm3) | ||
Mullite-based ceramics | 33.6–83.5 | Boehmite (16.5–66.4) | UP; 25 MPa 20 × 3 mm | 1300 °C 3.3 °C/min; 3h | ~62 | 2.7 |
Reference | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | CaO | P2O5 | Na2O | K2O | LOI | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[112] | 77.50 | 13.5 | 0.20 | 0.30 | 0.10 | 4.80 | 3.30 | 0.0 | |
Final material | Percentage of use (wt.%) | Additional raw materials (wt.%) | Shaping method | Sintering conditions | |||||
Porcelain materials | 41–50 | Kaolin (50) Quartz (0–9) | Slip casting 80 × 20 × 20 mm | 1050–1200 °C 5 °C/min; 2 h | |||||
Structural materials | 80–90 | Kaolin (10–20) | Slip casting 80 × 20 × 20 mm | 1050 °C 5 °C/min; 2 h | |||||
Final material | Compressive strength (MPa) | Flexural strength (MPa) | Water absorption (%) | Apparent density (g/cm3) | Firing shrinkage (%) | ||||
Porcelain materials | 40–90 | 10–30 | 0.2–18 | 1.7–2.5 | 2–18 | ||||
Structural materials | 67–69 | 16.5–17.5 | 6.3–6.8 | 2.05–2.07 | nd |
Reference | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | CaO | MgO | Na2O | K2O | TiO2 | LOI |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[122] | 45.55 | 37.56 | 0.23 | 0.44 | 0.43 | 0.16 | 0.21 | 0.37 | 15.30 |
[123] | 65.21 | 26.68 | --- | 0.30 | 0.84 | 0.43 | 3.16 | 1.24 | 16.70 |
[124] | 30.70 | 27.40 | 8.10 | 0.30 | --- | --- | --- | 2.70 | 30.80 |
[125] | 48.5–54.1 | 21.80–25.70 | 4.2–8.6 | 2.6–3.4 | 1.7–2.5 | 0.4–0.6 | 1.3–1.6 | nd |
Reference | Percentage of Use (wt.%) | Additional Raw Materials (wt.%) | Shaping Method | Sintering Conditions |
---|---|---|---|---|
[122] | 45.61 | γ-Al2O3 (54.39) | UP; 200 MPa | 1400–1550 °C 4 h |
[123] | 73.79 | Al2O3 (26.21) | UP; 20 MPa 70 × 10 × 10 mm | 1300–1550 °C 3 °C/min; 3 h |
[124] | 50.0 | Low-grade bauxite (50.0 ) | Pelletizing | 1200–1450 °C 5 °C/min; 2 h |
[125] | 50.00 | High alumina refractory solid wastes (50.00) | UP; 200 MPa 4 × 6 × 50 mm | 1300–1400 °C 3 h |
Reference | Final Material | Flexural Strength (MPa) | Water Absorption (%) | Apparent Density (g/cm3) |
---|---|---|---|---|
[122] | Mullite ceramics | 25–218 | nd | 1.89–3.20 |
[123] | Mullite ceramics | 80–97 | 0.26–7 | 2.06–2.40 |
[124] | Mullite based proppants | nd | nd | 2.64–2.85 |
[125] | Mullite ceramics | 47–72 | nd | 2.25–2.50 |
Reference | Waste | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | MgO | Na2O | K2O | TiO2 | LOI |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[133] | Primary kaolin industry waste | 57.11 | 40.67 | 0.04 | --- | 0.53 | 1.65 | --- | nd |
[134,135,136,137] | Primary kaolin industry waste | 52.68 | 33.57 | 0.93 | --- | 0.08 | 5.72 | 0.12 | 6.75 |
[138] | Fine kaolin waste | 46.4 | 37.7 | 0.5 | 1.0 | * | 1.4 | * | 12.6 |
[138] | Coarse kaolin waste | 60.3 | 28.5 | 0.9 | 0.8 | ** | 1.0 | ** | 7.4 |
Reference | Percentage of Use (wt.%) | Additional Raw Materials (wt.%) | Shaping Method | Sintering Conditions |
---|---|---|---|---|
[133] | 66.38–74.12 | Alumina (25.88–33.62 wt.%) Ball clay (0–7 wt.%) | UP; 27 MPa 60 × 20 × 5 mm | 1350–1500 °C 10 °C/min; 1 h |
[134] | 38–54 | Alumina (46–62 wt.%) | UP; 30 MPa 60 × 20 × 5 mm | 1450–1600 °C 5 °C/min; 2 h |
[135] | 48–74.12 | Alumina (25.88–52.00) Ball clay (0–7) | UP; 27 MPa 60 × 20 × 5 mm | 1350–1500 °C 10 °C/min; 1 h |
[136] | 16.60–100 | Alumina (0–66.6) Ball clay (0–6.66) | UP; 35 MPa 50 × 20 × 5 mm | 1300–1400 °C 5 °C/min; 2 h |
[137] | 10–35 | Red clay (35–40) Ball clay (0–30) Feldspar (0–48) Calcite (0–2) | UP; 27–35 MPa 50 × 20 × 5 mm | 1180–1240 °C 38 °C/min; 5 min |
[138] | Fine (35.7–78.0) Coarse (35.7–71) | Talc (14–29) Magnesium hydroxide (0–8) | UP; 13.0 MPa 60 × 20 × 5 mm | 1150–1250 °C 5 °C/min; 2 h |
Reference | Final Material | MOR (MPa) | Water Absorption (%) | Apparent Density (g/cm3) | Firing Shrinkage (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
[133] | Mullite-based ceramics | 40–60 | 3.20–8.98 | 2.28–2.40 | 5.09–6.59 |
[134] | Mullite-based ceramics | ~37–77 | ~0.75–4.60 | ~2.14–2.50 | nd |
[135] | Porous technical ceramic bodies | 32–67 | ~9.3–14.5 | 2.10–2.34 | ~6.5–2.0 |
[136] | Mullite-based ceramics | 10.40–50.37 | 0.78–10.56 | nd | nd |
[137] | Ceramic tiles | ~38–41 | ~0.5–2 | ~2.20–2.35 | ~5.0–6.6 |
[138] | Cordierite-mullite composites | 3–28 | 0.5–25.6 | nd | 1.7–9.1 |
Reference | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | CaO + MgO | TiO2 | Na2O | K2O | LOI | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[139,140] | 48.30 | 32.00 | 5.13 | 2.12 | 0.52 | 0.10 | 2.43 | 10.30 | |||
Final material | Percentage of use (wt.%) | Additional raw materials (wt.%) | Shaping method | Sintering conditions | |||||||
[139] | Mulite ceramics | 100 | None | UP; 40 MPa | 1000–1300 °C 6 °C/min; 2 h | ||||||
[140] | nr | Sericity clay (nd) | UP; 150 MPa 100 × 10 × 10 mm | 1400–1600 °C 10 °C/min; 2–2.5 h | |||||||
MOR (MPa) | Water absorption (%) | Apparent density (g/cm3) | Firing shrinkage (%) | ||||||||
[139] | nd | ≈ 1 | 2.54 | 10 | |||||||
[140] | 44 | nd | 2.23–2.30 | nd |
Reference | Waste | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | CaO | MgO | Na2O | K2O | TiO2 | P2O5 | MnO | LOI |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[142] | Granite waste | 64.14 | 13.25 | 8.18 | 3.56 | 1.65 | 2.55 | 4.40 | 0.96 | nd | nd | 1.60 |
[143] | Granite waste | 67.14 | 14.92 | 4.40 | 1.91 | 0.73 | 2.93 | 5.18 | 0.73 | nd | nd | 0.50 |
[144] | Granite sludge | 71.65 | 14.25 | 2.86 | 1.83 | 0.86 | 3.72 | 4.43 | 0.24 | 0.13 | 0.03 | 1.00 |
[145] | Granite sludge | 67.09 | 13.73 | 2.26 | 4.16 | 0.81 | 3.50 | 4.62 | 0.24 | 0.28 | 0.04 | 3.00 |
[146] | Granite waste | 57.38 | 16.87 | 7.36 | 5.69 | 2.60 | 3.48 | 3.24 | 0.71 | nd | nd | 2.67 |
[147] | Granitic waste | 70.70 | 13.91 | 3.77 | 0.94 | 0.08 | 3.37 | 6.25 | 0.45 | 0.05 | 0.10 | 0.40 |
[148] | Granitic waste | 51.92 | 17.37 | 10.70 | 9.73 | 2.66 | nd | 4.35 | 2.40 | nd | 0.22 | nd |
[149] | Granite cutting sludge | 70.03 * | 12.68 * | 6.40 * | 1.88 * | 0.08 * | 3.23 * | 4.53 * | 0.12 * | 0.14 * | 0.08 * | nd |
Reference | Percentage of Use (wt.%) | Additional Raw Materials (wt.%) | Shaping Method | Sintering Conditions |
---|---|---|---|---|
[142] | 20–40 | Preta clay (25–70) Carolinho clay (15–80) | Extrusion 100 × 11 × 30 mm | 850–1100 °C 4 °C/min; 3 h |
[143] | 10–40 | Clay (60–90) | Extrusion 100 × 15 × 25 mm | 970 °C 6h |
[144] | 20–50 | Clay A (15–25) Clay B (25–30) Feldspar (5–30) | UP; 47 MPa Ø20 × 2 mm Extrusion Ø10 × 120 mm | 1140–1200 °C 5 °C/min; 1 h |
[145] | 35–70 | Clay (48.72) Quartz (6.28) Feldspar (20–45) | Extrusion Ø10 × 120 mm | 1100–1200 °C |
[146] | 2.5–10 | Standard porcelain tile formulation | UP; 45 MPa | 1180–1210 °C 50 min |
[147] | 25–30 | Kaolin (60) Quartz (10–15) Feldspar (25) | UP; 20 MPa Ø25 × 5 mm 50 × 10 × 10 mm | 1000–1350 °C 5 °C/min; 2 h |
[148] | 10–30 | Alumina(65–85) MnO2 (5) | UP; 20 MPa 50 × 4 × 4 mm | 1300–1350 °C 5 °C/min; 1 h |
[149] | 5–10 | Feldspar (30–40) Clay (40) Quartz (20) Incinerator fly ash (5–10) | UP; 40 MPa Ø20 × 5 mm | 1200–1230 °C 50 °C/min; 5 min |
Reference | Final Material | Compressive Strength (MPa) | Flexural Strength (MPa) | Water Absorption (%) | Apparent Density (g/cm3) | Firing Shrinkage (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[142] | Roofing tile | nd | 4.00–16.0 | 7.05–23.10 | 1.77–1.80 | 1.68–12.07 |
[143] | Red ceramic | nd | 8.55–9.60 | 18.75–23.75 | 1.67–1.78 | 2.75–3.29 |
[144] | Porcelain materials | nd | 47.84–60.26 | Pellets (0.12–2.23); Discs (0.07–1.31) | 2.20–227 | 5.56–7.13 |
[145] | Rustic stoneware | nd | 62.10–72.50 | 0.05–8.80 | 1.91–2.32 | nd |
[146] | Porcelain materials | nd | nd | 0.50–1.10 | nd | 7.35–8.25 |
[147] | Porcelain materials | nd | 31.10–45.40 | Discs (0.10–18.30); bars (0.47–1.40) | Discs (1.83–25.20) bars (2.31–2.51) | nd |
[148] | Alumina porcelain | nd | 60.50–199.80 | nd | 2.22–3.18 | nd |
[149] | Porcelainized stoneware | 106–227 | nd | 0.01–21.90 | 2.13–2.73 | 2.51–13.10 |
Reference | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | CaO | MgO | Na2O | K2O | TiO2 | P2O5 | MnO | LOI |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[150] | 47.93 | 12.62 | 2.97 | 12.58 | 4.90 | 2.27 | 2.33 | 0.45 | 0.27 | 0.05 | 13.11 |
[151] | 0.52 | nd | 0.10 | 53.51 | 1.66 | 0.09 | nd | nd | nd | nd | 44.12 |
Final material | Percentage of use (wt.%) | Additional raw materials (wt.%) | Shaping method | Sintering conditions | |||||||
[150] | Floor red-clay ceramics | 10–30 | Red clay (70–90) | UP; 20 MPa 50 × 4 × 4 mm | 1100–1150 °C 8.33 °C/min; 2 h | ||||||
[151] | Artistic stoneware | 10–27 | Feldspar (23) Clay (50) Quartz (0–7) Kaolin (0–20) | Slip casting 200 × 20 × 15 mm | 1160 °C 7 h | ||||||
Flexural strength (MPa) | Water absorption (%) | Apparent density (g/cm3) | Firing shrinkage (%) | ||||||||
[150] | 11.23–22.60 | 3.00–9.80 | 2.36–2.53 | 2.05–4.60 | |||||||
[151] | nd | 6.60–14.50 | nd | 4.60–9.60 |
Reference | Waste | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | CaO | MgO | Na2O | K2O | TiO2 | P2O5 | MnO | LOI |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[106] | Quartz tailing | 89.8 | 5.16 | 0.57 | 0.04 | 0.11 | 0.11 | 1.20 | nd | nd | nd | nd |
[144] | Quartzite waste | 68.48 | 14.93 | 4.68 | 0.11 | 0.78 | 0.31 | 2.94 | 1.08 | 0.21 | 0.07 | 5.50 |
[152] | Quartzite waste | 94.14 | 2.15 | 0.23 | nd | 0.01 | nd | 0.26 | nd | nd | nd | 0.54 |
[153] | Quartzite waste | 78.15 | 11.39 | 5.11 | 0.90 | 0.86 | nd | 5.11 | 0.13 | nd | nd | 1.53 |
[154] | Quartzite waste | 67.71 | 18.50 | 1.96 | 1.23 | 1.78 | nd | 7.80 | 0.22 | nd | nd | nd |
[155] | Quartzite waste | 77.1 | 11.2 | 1.4 | 0.9 | 0.9 | nd | 5.0 | 0.1 | nd | nd | 2.9 |
Reference | Percentage of Use (wt.%) | Additional Raw Materials (wt.%) | Shaping Method | Sintering Conditions |
---|---|---|---|---|
[106] | 28.8–82.0 | AlO(OH) (18.0–71.2) | UP; 25 MPa Ø 20 × 3 mm | 1300 °C 3.3 °C/min; 3 h |
[144] | 35- 70 | Clay (48.72) Quartz (6.28) Feldspar (20–45) | Extrusion Ø10 × 120 mm | 1100–1200 °C |
[152] | 10–15 | Red clay (85–90) | UP; 28–35 MPa 70 × 20 × 10 mm | 950–1100 °C 5 °C/min; 2 h |
[153] | 10–25 | Red clay (75–90) | UP; 20 MPa 50 × 15 × 10 mm | 800–1000 °C 2 °C/min; 3 h |
[154] | 1.76–10.24 | Ceramic mass for porcelain | UP; 50 MPa 20 × 7 × 60 mm | 1143–1257 °C 49 °C/min; 2 h |
[155] | 10–25 | Clay (48.72) Quartz (6.28) Feldspar (20–45) | Slip casting 6.0 × 2.0 × 0.5 mm | 600–1200 °C 2–4 °C/min; 40 min |
[156] | 3.0–12.0 | Clay UKR (22.0) Clay 1 (8.5) Clay 2 (6.0) Pegmatite (34.5) Magnesite (2.0) Albite (15–27) | UP; 30 MPa | 1200 °C 30 min |
Reference | Final Material | Compressive Strength (MPa) | Flexural Strength (MPa) | Water Absorption (%) | Apparent Density (g/cm3) | Firing Shrinkage (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[106] | Mullite ceramic | nd | nd | nd | 2.4 | nd |
[145] | Rustic stoneware | nd | 27.80–30.75 | 3.90–14.10 | 2.00–2.25 | nd |
[152] | Red ceramic | 34.67–192.56 | 1.56–2.58 | 1.43–11.37 | nd | 11.84–24.58 |
[153] | Structural ceramic | nd | 1.38–6.52 | 13.80–19.05 | nd | 0.01–3.25 |
[154] | Porcelain material | nd | 21.18–71.52 | 0.00–12.68 | 1.93–2.42 | 3.34–8.68 |
[155] | Sanitary ware | nd | 27.50–46.40 | 0.50–0.90 | 2.30–2.40 | 9.80–11.80 |
Reference | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | CaO | MgO | Na2O | K2O | TiO2 | LOI |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[156] | 98.46 | 0.21 | 0.02 | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.09 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 1.13 |
Final material | Percentage of use (wt.%) | Additional raw materials (wt.%) | Shaping method | Sintering conditions | |||||
Porcelain material | 15–65 | Kaolin (20–70) Feldspar (15–65) | UP; 40 MPa 70 × 25 × 5 mm | 1180 °C 5 °C/min; 1 h | |||||
Flexural strength (MPa) | Water absorption (%) | Apparent density (g/cm3) | Firing shrinkage (%) | ||||||
12.69–57.98 | 0.13–15.37 | 1.75–2.33 | 2.29–13.62 |
Reference | Waste | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | CaO | MgO | Na2O | K2O | TiO2 | P25 | MnO | LOI |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[157] | Gneiss | 59.22 | 16.75 | 4.56 | 5.98 | 1.63 | 4.48 | 4.31 | 0.43 | 0.75 | 0.14 | 1.74 |
[157] | Varvite | 74.32 | 8.79 | 2.43 | 2.68 | 1.74 | 3.12 | 1.48 | 0.51 | 0.18 | 0.16 | 4.59 |
[158] | Gneiss | 67.83 | 14.76 | 1.44 | 0.29 | 0.39 | 0.34 | 3.26 | 1.68 | nd | nd | 0.66 |
Final material | Percentage of use (wt.%) | Additional raw materials (wt.%) | Shaping method | Sintering conditions | ||||||||
[157] | Porcelain material | Gneiss (5–45) Varvite (5–65) | Residual clay (20–40) Potable water sludge (10–65) | UP; 50 MPa Ø25 × 10mm 60 × 20 × 10 mm | 900–1150 °C 5 °C/min; 40 min | |||||||
[158] | Electric porcelain | Gneiss (40–60) | Kaolinitic clay (40–60) | UP; 30 MPa 114.5 × 25.4 × 8 mm | 1200 °C 15 min | |||||||
Flexural strength (MPa) | Water absorption (%) | Apparent density (g/cm3) | Firing shrinkage (%) | |||||||||
[157] | 0.75–3.8 | 0.35–21.05 | 2.20–2.75 | 2.00–11.90 | ||||||||
[158] | ~40–55 | 0.1–0.6 | nr | nr |
Reference | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | CaO | MgO | Na2O | K2O | TiO2 | LOI |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[159] | 75.70 | 13.30 | 0.46 | 0.39 | 0.10 | 2.12 | 6.47 | 0.21 | 0.94 |
Final material | Percentage of use (wt.%) | Additional raw materials (wt.%) | Shaping method | Sintering conditions | |||||
Porcelain material | 3.0–12.0 | Clay UKR (22.0) Clay 1 (8.5) Clay 2 (6.0) Pegmatite (34.5) Magnesite (2.0) Albite (15–27) | UP; 30 MPa | 1200 °C 30 min | |||||
Compressive strength (MPa) | Water absorption (%) | Firing shrinkage (%) | |||||||
50.5–59.3 | 0.08–0.20 | 6.05–6.64 |
Reference | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | CaO | MgO | Na2O | K2O | TiO2 | MnO | LOI |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[160,161] | 66.43 | 16.26 | 3.70 | 2.23 | 0.32 | 1.01 | 7.49 | 0.83 | 0.08 | 0.65 |
Final material | Percentage of use (wt.%) | Additional raw materials (wt.%) | Shaping method | Sintering conditions | ||||||
[160] | Aluminous porcelain | 10–35 | Kaolin (20) Plastic clay (25) Alumina (20) Feldspar (5–35) | UP; 50 MPa | 1000–1350 °C 3–5°C/min; 1 h | |||||
[161] | Floor tiles | 10–47.5 | Kaolin (40) Quartz (12.5) Na-feldspar (0–37.5) | UP; 50 MPa 11.50 × 2.54 mm | 1190–1250 °C Fast-firing | |||||
Flexural strength (MPa) | Water absorption (%) | Apparent density (g/cm3) | Firing shrinkage (%) | |||||||
[160] | 19.10–22.05 | 0.01–0.60 | 2.46–2.53 | 10.65–11.50 | ||||||
[161] | ~34–67 | 0–7 | 2.15–2.45 | 5.8–9.5 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Romero, M.; Padilla, I.; Contreras, M.; López-Delgado, A. Mullite-Based Ceramics from Mining Waste: A Review. Minerals 2021, 11, 332. https://doi.org/10.3390/min11030332
Romero M, Padilla I, Contreras M, López-Delgado A. Mullite-Based Ceramics from Mining Waste: A Review. Minerals. 2021; 11(3):332. https://doi.org/10.3390/min11030332
Chicago/Turabian StyleRomero, Maximina, Isabel Padilla, Manuel Contreras, and Aurora López-Delgado. 2021. "Mullite-Based Ceramics from Mining Waste: A Review" Minerals 11, no. 3: 332. https://doi.org/10.3390/min11030332