Mullite-Based Ceramics from Mining Waste: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- Sinter-mullite. Through sintering processing, mullite is basically obtained by reactions in the solid state by interdiffusion of aluminum, silicon and oxygen atoms. The aluminum-bearing raw materials used for the synthesis of mullite are mainly clay minerals, basically kaolinite (Al2Si2O5(OH)4) and pirofilite (4SiO2·Al2O3·H2O); other minerals such as Al2SiO5 (sillimanite, cianite and andalusite); AlO(OH) (boehmite and diaspore); gibbsite (Al(OH)3) and bauxite ((AlOx(OH)3−2x) with x = 0–1) are usually added as supplementary raw materials. Quartz (SiO2) is used as Si source. During sintering at ~500 °C, kaolinite is transformed into metakaolinite (Al2Si2O7) by the loss of structural molecules of water. Later, at higher temperature (~980 °C) metakaolinite is decomposed in Si-Al spinel and amorphous silica. The reaction between these two phases at~1200 °C origins the formation of mullite [50]. For the complete transformation of kaolinite into mullite by the sintering process, very high temperatures are required (1600–1700 °C) due to the diffusion coefficient of mullite in the grain border being very low. To reduce the mullitization temperature, it is convenient to use systems to mix raw materials at the atomic level.
- Fused-mullite. Mullite is synthesized by fusing of raw materials (alumina Bayer, quartz sand, rock crystal and fused silica) in an electric furnace at a temperature over 2000 °C until homogeneous molten is achieved. By controlled crystallization during the cooling, molten mullite is developed [59].
2. Mining Waste from the Extraction of Metals
2.1. Iron Mining Waste
2.2. Aluminum Mining Waste
2.3. Boron Mining Waste
2.4. Molybdenum Mining Waste
2.5. Lithium Mining Waste
3. Waste from Mineral Extraction
3.1. Coal Gangue
3.2. Kaolin Processing Waste
3.3. Granitic Sand Washing Waste
3.4. Ornamental Rock Waste
3.4.1. Granitic Rock Waste
3.4.2. Marble Waste
3.4.3. Quartz and Quartzite Rock Waste
3.4.4. Agate Waste
3.4.5. Gneiss and Varvite Waste
3.4.6. Rhyolite
3.4.7. Ornamental Rock-Cutting Waste
4. Final Remarks
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Name | Chemical Formula | Name | Chemical Formula |
---|---|---|---|
Albite | Na(AlSi3O8) | Goethite | FeO(OH) |
Alumina | Al2O3 | Hematite | Fe2O3 |
Andalusite | Al2SiO5 | Illite | (K,H3O)(Al, Mg, Fe)2(Si, Al)4O10 |
Andesite | (Ca,Na)Al2Si2O8 | Kaolinite | Al2Si2O5(OH)4 |
Anorthite | CaAl2Si2O8 | Magnesia | Mg(OH)2 |
Bauxite | AlOx(OH)3−2x with x = 0–1 | Magnetite | Fe2 + Fe3 + 2O4 |
Biotite | K(Mg,Fe2 + )6(Si,Al)8O20(OH)4·nH2O | Metakaolinite | Al2Si2O7 |
Boehmite | AlO(OH) | Mica | KAl2(Si3Al)O10(OH,F)2 |
Borax | Na2B4O5(OH)4·8H2O | Microcline | K(AlSi3O8) |
Calcite | CaCO3 | Montmorillonite | (Na,Ca)0.3(Al,Mg)2Si4O10(OH)2·nH2O |
Chlorite | Na0.5Al4Mg2Si7AlO18(OH)12·5(H2O) | Mullite | Al4 + 2xSi2−2xO10-x (x = 0.17–0.59) |
Cianite | Al2SiO5 | Muscovite | KAl2(Si3Al)O10(OH)2 |
Clinochlore | (Mg,Fe)6(Si,Al)4O10(OH)8 | Pirofilite | 4Al2Si4O11·H2O |
Colemanite | CaB3O4(OH)3·H2O | Plagioclase | (Na,Ca)(Si,Al)3O8 |
Cristobalite | SiO2 | Quartz | SiO2 |
Diaspore | AlO(OH) | Sapphirine | Mg4(Mg3Al9)O4[Si3Al9O36] |
Dolomite | CaMg(CO3)2 | Sillimanite | Al2SiO5 |
Enstatite | Mg2Si2O6 | Spodumene | LiAlSi2O6 |
Feldspar | (K,Na,Ca,Ba,NH4)(Si,Al)4O8 | Tincalconite | Na2B4O4(OH)4·3H2O |
Gibbsite | Al(OH)3 |
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Reference | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | CaO | MgO | Na2O | K2O | TiO2 | P2O5 | MnO | LOI |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[79] | 39.40–63.32 | 1.22–1.42 | 32.31–55.61 | 0.08–0.36 | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | 2.33–3.42 |
[80] | 19.84–21.63 | 11.91–13.25 | 66.15–72.21 | --- | 0.71–0.84 | --- | 1.25–1.53 | --- | --- | --- | nd |
[81] | 24.4 | 10.95 | 44.52 | 6.2 | 0.99 | 0.28 | 0.86 | 0.42 | 2.78 | --- | 6.95 |
[82] | 15.78–20.45 | 13.19–18.81 | 57.32–67.44 | 0.18–0.34 | --- | --- | 0.21–0.28 | --- | 0–0.66 | 1.49–2.62 | 7.3–9.4 |
Reference | Percentage of Use (wt.%) | Additional Raw Materials (wt.%) | Shaping Method | Sintering Conditions |
---|---|---|---|---|
[79] | 30–50 | Clay (35–60) Fluxing minerals (0–15) | UP; 25–30 MPa ∅ 50 mm 110 × 55 mm | 1060–1200 °C 10 °C/min |
[80] | 60 | Kaolinitic clay (40) | UP; 30 MPa 50 × 50 mm 110 × 55 mm | 850–1000 °C 1 h |
[81] | 50–70 | Kaolin (25) Quartz sand (5–25) | UP; 20 MPa 60 × 35 × 5 mm | 1150–1250 °C 5 °C/min; 30 min |
[82] | 100 | nr | UP; 10 MPa 50 × 50 × 5 mm | 1200 °C 10 °C/min; 2 h |
Reference | Final Material | Compressive Strength (MPa) | Flexural Strength (MPa) | Water Absorption (%) | Apparent Density (g/cm3) | Firing Shrinkage (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[79] | Ceramic tiles | nd | 17–31 | <0.5–16.5 | nd | 0.07–7.00 |
[80] | Ceramic bricks and pavement blocks | 15–70 | nd | 6–8 | 2.4–2.7 | nd |
[81] | Porcelain tiles | nd | 30–75 | <0.5–17 | nd | 5–16 |
[82] | Porcelain tiles | nd | 53.41 | 0.34 | 3.63 | 26.51 |
Reference | Waste | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | CaO | Na2O | K2O | TiO2 | SO3 | LOI |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[93,94] | Red mud | 33.57 | 27.66 | 7.56 | 15.26 | 3.54 | 1.76 | 3.36 | --- | 7.29 |
[95] | Alumina waste | 1.40 | 90.90 | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | 7.00 | nd |
Reference | Mining Waste | Percentage of Use (wt.%) | Additional Raw Materials (wt.%) | Shaping Method | Sintering Conditions |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
[93] | Red mud | 65.8–7.0 | Kaolin (28.2–30) Ammonium molybdate (0–6) | UP; 25 MPa ∅ 25 mm 70 × 6 × 6 mm | 1150–1200 °C 3 °C/min; 2 h |
[94] | Red mud | 23–29 | SiC (35–44) Al(OH)3 (15) V2O5 (3) AlF3 (4) Graphite (5–20) | UP; 20 MPa 35 × 10 mm | 1150–1350 °C 2 °C/min; 3 h |
[95] | Alumina waste | 48–56 | Kaolin (44–52) | UP; 33–66 MPa 30 × 5 × 5 mm | 1450–1500 °C 5 °C/min; 1 h |
Reference | Mining Waste | Final Material | Flexural Strength (MPa) | Water Absorption (%) | Apparent Density (g/cm3) | Firing Shrinkage (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[93] | Red mud | Ceramic floor tile | 153–195 | 7–27 | 1.45–1.83 | nd |
[94] | Red mud | SiC/mullite composite porous ceramics | 8–68 | nd | nd | nd |
[95] | Alumina waste | Porous mullite blocks | 46–56 | 17–18 | nd | 10–11 |
Reference | Waste | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | CaO | MgO | Na2O | K2O | B2O3 | LOI |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[100] | (1) | 15.83 | 1.06 | 0.24 | 20.66 | 19.84 | 2.58 | 0.63 | 3.99 | 34.75 |
[101,102] | (2) | 0.39–19.81 | 0.11–0.74 | 0.13–0.33 | 23.31–52.75 | 0.60–8.96 | 0.00–1.34 | 0.00–0.17 | 16.37–31.11 | 14.68–30.74 |
Reference | Mining Waste | Percentage of Use (wt.%) | Additional Raw Materials (wt.%) | Shaping Method | Sintering Conditions |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
[100] | Tincalconite | 2–16 | Clay (60) Feldespatic waste (24–40) | UP; 16 MPa 110 × 55 × 6 mm | 1050–1150 °C 2 °C/min; 1 h |
[101] | Colemanite | 1–14.80 | nr | UP 15 × 5 × 5 mm | 1120–1195 °C 4 min |
[102] | Colemanite | 1.10–8.56 | nr | UP ∅ 50 mm 5 × 10 cm | 1180–1230 °C 4 min |
Reference | Mining Waste | Final Material | Flexural Strength (MPa) | Water Absorption (%) | Firing Shrinkage (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
[100] | Tincalconite | Terracota tiles | 16–44 | 0.1–14 | 3.0–8.5 |
[101] | Colemanite | Wall and floor tiles | 38.43 | 0.49 | 6.8 |
[102] | Colemanite | Porcelain tiles | 44.80 | 0.01 | 7.4 |
Reference | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | CaO | MgO | Na2O | K2O | LOI |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[106] | 73.2 | 11.1 | 2.93 | 1.95 | 4.84 | 3.45 | 1.51 | nd |
Final material | Percentage of use (wt.%) | Additional raw materials (wt.%) | Shaping method | Sintering conditions | Compressive strength (MPa) | Apparent density (g/cm3) | ||
Mullite-based ceramics | 33.6–83.5 | Boehmite (16.5–66.4) | UP; 25 MPa 20 × 3 mm | 1300 °C 3.3 °C/min; 3h | ~62 | 2.7 |
Reference | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | CaO | P2O5 | Na2O | K2O | LOI | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[112] | 77.50 | 13.5 | 0.20 | 0.30 | 0.10 | 4.80 | 3.30 | 0.0 | |
Final material | Percentage of use (wt.%) | Additional raw materials (wt.%) | Shaping method | Sintering conditions | |||||
Porcelain materials | 41–50 | Kaolin (50) Quartz (0–9) | Slip casting 80 × 20 × 20 mm | 1050–1200 °C 5 °C/min; 2 h | |||||
Structural materials | 80–90 | Kaolin (10–20) | Slip casting 80 × 20 × 20 mm | 1050 °C 5 °C/min; 2 h | |||||
Final material | Compressive strength (MPa) | Flexural strength (MPa) | Water absorption (%) | Apparent density (g/cm3) | Firing shrinkage (%) | ||||
Porcelain materials | 40–90 | 10–30 | 0.2–18 | 1.7–2.5 | 2–18 | ||||
Structural materials | 67–69 | 16.5–17.5 | 6.3–6.8 | 2.05–2.07 | nd |
Reference | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | CaO | MgO | Na2O | K2O | TiO2 | LOI |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[122] | 45.55 | 37.56 | 0.23 | 0.44 | 0.43 | 0.16 | 0.21 | 0.37 | 15.30 |
[123] | 65.21 | 26.68 | --- | 0.30 | 0.84 | 0.43 | 3.16 | 1.24 | 16.70 |
[124] | 30.70 | 27.40 | 8.10 | 0.30 | --- | --- | --- | 2.70 | 30.80 |
[125] | 48.5–54.1 | 21.80–25.70 | 4.2–8.6 | 2.6–3.4 | 1.7–2.5 | 0.4–0.6 | 1.3–1.6 | nd |
Reference | Percentage of Use (wt.%) | Additional Raw Materials (wt.%) | Shaping Method | Sintering Conditions |
---|---|---|---|---|
[122] | 45.61 | γ-Al2O3 (54.39) | UP; 200 MPa | 1400–1550 °C 4 h |
[123] | 73.79 | Al2O3 (26.21) | UP; 20 MPa 70 × 10 × 10 mm | 1300–1550 °C 3 °C/min; 3 h |
[124] | 50.0 | Low-grade bauxite (50.0 ) | Pelletizing | 1200–1450 °C 5 °C/min; 2 h |
[125] | 50.00 | High alumina refractory solid wastes (50.00) | UP; 200 MPa 4 × 6 × 50 mm | 1300–1400 °C 3 h |
Reference | Final Material | Flexural Strength (MPa) | Water Absorption (%) | Apparent Density (g/cm3) |
---|---|---|---|---|
[122] | Mullite ceramics | 25–218 | nd | 1.89–3.20 |
[123] | Mullite ceramics | 80–97 | 0.26–7 | 2.06–2.40 |
[124] | Mullite based proppants | nd | nd | 2.64–2.85 |
[125] | Mullite ceramics | 47–72 | nd | 2.25–2.50 |
Reference | Waste | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | MgO | Na2O | K2O | TiO2 | LOI |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[133] | Primary kaolin industry waste | 57.11 | 40.67 | 0.04 | --- | 0.53 | 1.65 | --- | nd |
[134,135,136,137] | Primary kaolin industry waste | 52.68 | 33.57 | 0.93 | --- | 0.08 | 5.72 | 0.12 | 6.75 |
[138] | Fine kaolin waste | 46.4 | 37.7 | 0.5 | 1.0 | * | 1.4 | * | 12.6 |
[138] | Coarse kaolin waste | 60.3 | 28.5 | 0.9 | 0.8 | ** | 1.0 | ** | 7.4 |
Reference | Percentage of Use (wt.%) | Additional Raw Materials (wt.%) | Shaping Method | Sintering Conditions |
---|---|---|---|---|
[133] | 66.38–74.12 | Alumina (25.88–33.62 wt.%) Ball clay (0–7 wt.%) | UP; 27 MPa 60 × 20 × 5 mm | 1350–1500 °C 10 °C/min; 1 h |
[134] | 38–54 | Alumina (46–62 wt.%) | UP; 30 MPa 60 × 20 × 5 mm | 1450–1600 °C 5 °C/min; 2 h |
[135] | 48–74.12 | Alumina (25.88–52.00) Ball clay (0–7) | UP; 27 MPa 60 × 20 × 5 mm | 1350–1500 °C 10 °C/min; 1 h |
[136] | 16.60–100 | Alumina (0–66.6) Ball clay (0–6.66) | UP; 35 MPa 50 × 20 × 5 mm | 1300–1400 °C 5 °C/min; 2 h |
[137] | 10–35 | Red clay (35–40) Ball clay (0–30) Feldspar (0–48) Calcite (0–2) | UP; 27–35 MPa 50 × 20 × 5 mm | 1180–1240 °C 38 °C/min; 5 min |
[138] | Fine (35.7–78.0) Coarse (35.7–71) | Talc (14–29) Magnesium hydroxide (0–8) | UP; 13.0 MPa 60 × 20 × 5 mm | 1150–1250 °C 5 °C/min; 2 h |
Reference | Final Material | MOR (MPa) | Water Absorption (%) | Apparent Density (g/cm3) | Firing Shrinkage (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
[133] | Mullite-based ceramics | 40–60 | 3.20–8.98 | 2.28–2.40 | 5.09–6.59 |
[134] | Mullite-based ceramics | ~37–77 | ~0.75–4.60 | ~2.14–2.50 | nd |
[135] | Porous technical ceramic bodies | 32–67 | ~9.3–14.5 | 2.10–2.34 | ~6.5–2.0 |
[136] | Mullite-based ceramics | 10.40–50.37 | 0.78–10.56 | nd | nd |
[137] | Ceramic tiles | ~38–41 | ~0.5–2 | ~2.20–2.35 | ~5.0–6.6 |
[138] | Cordierite-mullite composites | 3–28 | 0.5–25.6 | nd | 1.7–9.1 |
Reference | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | CaO + MgO | TiO2 | Na2O | K2O | LOI | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[139,140] | 48.30 | 32.00 | 5.13 | 2.12 | 0.52 | 0.10 | 2.43 | 10.30 | |||
Final material | Percentage of use (wt.%) | Additional raw materials (wt.%) | Shaping method | Sintering conditions | |||||||
[139] | Mulite ceramics | 100 | None | UP; 40 MPa | 1000–1300 °C 6 °C/min; 2 h | ||||||
[140] | nr | Sericity clay (nd) | UP; 150 MPa 100 × 10 × 10 mm | 1400–1600 °C 10 °C/min; 2–2.5 h | |||||||
MOR (MPa) | Water absorption (%) | Apparent density (g/cm3) | Firing shrinkage (%) | ||||||||
[139] | nd | ≈ 1 | 2.54 | 10 | |||||||
[140] | 44 | nd | 2.23–2.30 | nd |
Reference | Waste | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | CaO | MgO | Na2O | K2O | TiO2 | P2O5 | MnO | LOI |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[142] | Granite waste | 64.14 | 13.25 | 8.18 | 3.56 | 1.65 | 2.55 | 4.40 | 0.96 | nd | nd | 1.60 |
[143] | Granite waste | 67.14 | 14.92 | 4.40 | 1.91 | 0.73 | 2.93 | 5.18 | 0.73 | nd | nd | 0.50 |
[144] | Granite sludge | 71.65 | 14.25 | 2.86 | 1.83 | 0.86 | 3.72 | 4.43 | 0.24 | 0.13 | 0.03 | 1.00 |
[145] | Granite sludge | 67.09 | 13.73 | 2.26 | 4.16 | 0.81 | 3.50 | 4.62 | 0.24 | 0.28 | 0.04 | 3.00 |
[146] | Granite waste | 57.38 | 16.87 | 7.36 | 5.69 | 2.60 | 3.48 | 3.24 | 0.71 | nd | nd | 2.67 |
[147] | Granitic waste | 70.70 | 13.91 | 3.77 | 0.94 | 0.08 | 3.37 | 6.25 | 0.45 | 0.05 | 0.10 | 0.40 |
[148] | Granitic waste | 51.92 | 17.37 | 10.70 | 9.73 | 2.66 | nd | 4.35 | 2.40 | nd | 0.22 | nd |
[149] | Granite cutting sludge | 70.03 * | 12.68 * | 6.40 * | 1.88 * | 0.08 * | 3.23 * | 4.53 * | 0.12 * | 0.14 * | 0.08 * | nd |
Reference | Percentage of Use (wt.%) | Additional Raw Materials (wt.%) | Shaping Method | Sintering Conditions |
---|---|---|---|---|
[142] | 20–40 | Preta clay (25–70) Carolinho clay (15–80) | Extrusion 100 × 11 × 30 mm | 850–1100 °C 4 °C/min; 3 h |
[143] | 10–40 | Clay (60–90) | Extrusion 100 × 15 × 25 mm | 970 °C 6h |
[144] | 20–50 | Clay A (15–25) Clay B (25–30) Feldspar (5–30) | UP; 47 MPa Ø20 × 2 mm Extrusion Ø10 × 120 mm | 1140–1200 °C 5 °C/min; 1 h |
[145] | 35–70 | Clay (48.72) Quartz (6.28) Feldspar (20–45) | Extrusion Ø10 × 120 mm | 1100–1200 °C |
[146] | 2.5–10 | Standard porcelain tile formulation | UP; 45 MPa | 1180–1210 °C 50 min |
[147] | 25–30 | Kaolin (60) Quartz (10–15) Feldspar (25) | UP; 20 MPa Ø25 × 5 mm 50 × 10 × 10 mm | 1000–1350 °C 5 °C/min; 2 h |
[148] | 10–30 | Alumina(65–85) MnO2 (5) | UP; 20 MPa 50 × 4 × 4 mm | 1300–1350 °C 5 °C/min; 1 h |
[149] | 5–10 | Feldspar (30–40) Clay (40) Quartz (20) Incinerator fly ash (5–10) | UP; 40 MPa Ø20 × 5 mm | 1200–1230 °C 50 °C/min; 5 min |
Reference | Final Material | Compressive Strength (MPa) | Flexural Strength (MPa) | Water Absorption (%) | Apparent Density (g/cm3) | Firing Shrinkage (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[142] | Roofing tile | nd | 4.00–16.0 | 7.05–23.10 | 1.77–1.80 | 1.68–12.07 |
[143] | Red ceramic | nd | 8.55–9.60 | 18.75–23.75 | 1.67–1.78 | 2.75–3.29 |
[144] | Porcelain materials | nd | 47.84–60.26 | Pellets (0.12–2.23); Discs (0.07–1.31) | 2.20–227 | 5.56–7.13 |
[145] | Rustic stoneware | nd | 62.10–72.50 | 0.05–8.80 | 1.91–2.32 | nd |
[146] | Porcelain materials | nd | nd | 0.50–1.10 | nd | 7.35–8.25 |
[147] | Porcelain materials | nd | 31.10–45.40 | Discs (0.10–18.30); bars (0.47–1.40) | Discs (1.83–25.20) bars (2.31–2.51) | nd |
[148] | Alumina porcelain | nd | 60.50–199.80 | nd | 2.22–3.18 | nd |
[149] | Porcelainized stoneware | 106–227 | nd | 0.01–21.90 | 2.13–2.73 | 2.51–13.10 |
Reference | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | CaO | MgO | Na2O | K2O | TiO2 | P2O5 | MnO | LOI |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[150] | 47.93 | 12.62 | 2.97 | 12.58 | 4.90 | 2.27 | 2.33 | 0.45 | 0.27 | 0.05 | 13.11 |
[151] | 0.52 | nd | 0.10 | 53.51 | 1.66 | 0.09 | nd | nd | nd | nd | 44.12 |
Final material | Percentage of use (wt.%) | Additional raw materials (wt.%) | Shaping method | Sintering conditions | |||||||
[150] | Floor red-clay ceramics | 10–30 | Red clay (70–90) | UP; 20 MPa 50 × 4 × 4 mm | 1100–1150 °C 8.33 °C/min; 2 h | ||||||
[151] | Artistic stoneware | 10–27 | Feldspar (23) Clay (50) Quartz (0–7) Kaolin (0–20) | Slip casting 200 × 20 × 15 mm | 1160 °C 7 h | ||||||
Flexural strength (MPa) | Water absorption (%) | Apparent density (g/cm3) | Firing shrinkage (%) | ||||||||
[150] | 11.23–22.60 | 3.00–9.80 | 2.36–2.53 | 2.05–4.60 | |||||||
[151] | nd | 6.60–14.50 | nd | 4.60–9.60 |
Reference | Waste | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | CaO | MgO | Na2O | K2O | TiO2 | P2O5 | MnO | LOI |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[106] | Quartz tailing | 89.8 | 5.16 | 0.57 | 0.04 | 0.11 | 0.11 | 1.20 | nd | nd | nd | nd |
[144] | Quartzite waste | 68.48 | 14.93 | 4.68 | 0.11 | 0.78 | 0.31 | 2.94 | 1.08 | 0.21 | 0.07 | 5.50 |
[152] | Quartzite waste | 94.14 | 2.15 | 0.23 | nd | 0.01 | nd | 0.26 | nd | nd | nd | 0.54 |
[153] | Quartzite waste | 78.15 | 11.39 | 5.11 | 0.90 | 0.86 | nd | 5.11 | 0.13 | nd | nd | 1.53 |
[154] | Quartzite waste | 67.71 | 18.50 | 1.96 | 1.23 | 1.78 | nd | 7.80 | 0.22 | nd | nd | nd |
[155] | Quartzite waste | 77.1 | 11.2 | 1.4 | 0.9 | 0.9 | nd | 5.0 | 0.1 | nd | nd | 2.9 |
Reference | Percentage of Use (wt.%) | Additional Raw Materials (wt.%) | Shaping Method | Sintering Conditions |
---|---|---|---|---|
[106] | 28.8–82.0 | AlO(OH) (18.0–71.2) | UP; 25 MPa Ø 20 × 3 mm | 1300 °C 3.3 °C/min; 3 h |
[144] | 35- 70 | Clay (48.72) Quartz (6.28) Feldspar (20–45) | Extrusion Ø10 × 120 mm | 1100–1200 °C |
[152] | 10–15 | Red clay (85–90) | UP; 28–35 MPa 70 × 20 × 10 mm | 950–1100 °C 5 °C/min; 2 h |
[153] | 10–25 | Red clay (75–90) | UP; 20 MPa 50 × 15 × 10 mm | 800–1000 °C 2 °C/min; 3 h |
[154] | 1.76–10.24 | Ceramic mass for porcelain | UP; 50 MPa 20 × 7 × 60 mm | 1143–1257 °C 49 °C/min; 2 h |
[155] | 10–25 | Clay (48.72) Quartz (6.28) Feldspar (20–45) | Slip casting 6.0 × 2.0 × 0.5 mm | 600–1200 °C 2–4 °C/min; 40 min |
[156] | 3.0–12.0 | Clay UKR (22.0) Clay 1 (8.5) Clay 2 (6.0) Pegmatite (34.5) Magnesite (2.0) Albite (15–27) | UP; 30 MPa | 1200 °C 30 min |
Reference | Final Material | Compressive Strength (MPa) | Flexural Strength (MPa) | Water Absorption (%) | Apparent Density (g/cm3) | Firing Shrinkage (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[106] | Mullite ceramic | nd | nd | nd | 2.4 | nd |
[145] | Rustic stoneware | nd | 27.80–30.75 | 3.90–14.10 | 2.00–2.25 | nd |
[152] | Red ceramic | 34.67–192.56 | 1.56–2.58 | 1.43–11.37 | nd | 11.84–24.58 |
[153] | Structural ceramic | nd | 1.38–6.52 | 13.80–19.05 | nd | 0.01–3.25 |
[154] | Porcelain material | nd | 21.18–71.52 | 0.00–12.68 | 1.93–2.42 | 3.34–8.68 |
[155] | Sanitary ware | nd | 27.50–46.40 | 0.50–0.90 | 2.30–2.40 | 9.80–11.80 |
Reference | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | CaO | MgO | Na2O | K2O | TiO2 | LOI |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[156] | 98.46 | 0.21 | 0.02 | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.09 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 1.13 |
Final material | Percentage of use (wt.%) | Additional raw materials (wt.%) | Shaping method | Sintering conditions | |||||
Porcelain material | 15–65 | Kaolin (20–70) Feldspar (15–65) | UP; 40 MPa 70 × 25 × 5 mm | 1180 °C 5 °C/min; 1 h | |||||
Flexural strength (MPa) | Water absorption (%) | Apparent density (g/cm3) | Firing shrinkage (%) | ||||||
12.69–57.98 | 0.13–15.37 | 1.75–2.33 | 2.29–13.62 |
Reference | Waste | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | CaO | MgO | Na2O | K2O | TiO2 | P25 | MnO | LOI |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[157] | Gneiss | 59.22 | 16.75 | 4.56 | 5.98 | 1.63 | 4.48 | 4.31 | 0.43 | 0.75 | 0.14 | 1.74 |
[157] | Varvite | 74.32 | 8.79 | 2.43 | 2.68 | 1.74 | 3.12 | 1.48 | 0.51 | 0.18 | 0.16 | 4.59 |
[158] | Gneiss | 67.83 | 14.76 | 1.44 | 0.29 | 0.39 | 0.34 | 3.26 | 1.68 | nd | nd | 0.66 |
Final material | Percentage of use (wt.%) | Additional raw materials (wt.%) | Shaping method | Sintering conditions | ||||||||
[157] | Porcelain material | Gneiss (5–45) Varvite (5–65) | Residual clay (20–40) Potable water sludge (10–65) | UP; 50 MPa Ø25 × 10mm 60 × 20 × 10 mm | 900–1150 °C 5 °C/min; 40 min | |||||||
[158] | Electric porcelain | Gneiss (40–60) | Kaolinitic clay (40–60) | UP; 30 MPa 114.5 × 25.4 × 8 mm | 1200 °C 15 min | |||||||
Flexural strength (MPa) | Water absorption (%) | Apparent density (g/cm3) | Firing shrinkage (%) | |||||||||
[157] | 0.75–3.8 | 0.35–21.05 | 2.20–2.75 | 2.00–11.90 | ||||||||
[158] | ~40–55 | 0.1–0.6 | nr | nr |
Reference | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | CaO | MgO | Na2O | K2O | TiO2 | LOI |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[159] | 75.70 | 13.30 | 0.46 | 0.39 | 0.10 | 2.12 | 6.47 | 0.21 | 0.94 |
Final material | Percentage of use (wt.%) | Additional raw materials (wt.%) | Shaping method | Sintering conditions | |||||
Porcelain material | 3.0–12.0 | Clay UKR (22.0) Clay 1 (8.5) Clay 2 (6.0) Pegmatite (34.5) Magnesite (2.0) Albite (15–27) | UP; 30 MPa | 1200 °C 30 min | |||||
Compressive strength (MPa) | Water absorption (%) | Firing shrinkage (%) | |||||||
50.5–59.3 | 0.08–0.20 | 6.05–6.64 |
Reference | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | CaO | MgO | Na2O | K2O | TiO2 | MnO | LOI |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[160,161] | 66.43 | 16.26 | 3.70 | 2.23 | 0.32 | 1.01 | 7.49 | 0.83 | 0.08 | 0.65 |
Final material | Percentage of use (wt.%) | Additional raw materials (wt.%) | Shaping method | Sintering conditions | ||||||
[160] | Aluminous porcelain | 10–35 | Kaolin (20) Plastic clay (25) Alumina (20) Feldspar (5–35) | UP; 50 MPa | 1000–1350 °C 3–5°C/min; 1 h | |||||
[161] | Floor tiles | 10–47.5 | Kaolin (40) Quartz (12.5) Na-feldspar (0–37.5) | UP; 50 MPa 11.50 × 2.54 mm | 1190–1250 °C Fast-firing | |||||
Flexural strength (MPa) | Water absorption (%) | Apparent density (g/cm3) | Firing shrinkage (%) | |||||||
[160] | 19.10–22.05 | 0.01–0.60 | 2.46–2.53 | 10.65–11.50 | ||||||
[161] | ~34–67 | 0–7 | 2.15–2.45 | 5.8–9.5 |
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Romero, M.; Padilla, I.; Contreras, M.; López-Delgado, A. Mullite-Based Ceramics from Mining Waste: A Review. Minerals 2021, 11, 332. https://doi.org/10.3390/min11030332
Romero M, Padilla I, Contreras M, López-Delgado A. Mullite-Based Ceramics from Mining Waste: A Review. Minerals. 2021; 11(3):332. https://doi.org/10.3390/min11030332
Chicago/Turabian StyleRomero, Maximina, Isabel Padilla, Manuel Contreras, and Aurora López-Delgado. 2021. "Mullite-Based Ceramics from Mining Waste: A Review" Minerals 11, no. 3: 332. https://doi.org/10.3390/min11030332
APA StyleRomero, M., Padilla, I., Contreras, M., & López-Delgado, A. (2021). Mullite-Based Ceramics from Mining Waste: A Review. Minerals, 11(3), 332. https://doi.org/10.3390/min11030332