Petrography and Provenance of the Sub-Himalayan Kuldana Formation: Implications for Tectonic Setting and Palaeoclimatic Conditions
Abstract
:1. Introduction and Geological Setting
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Field Study
3.2. Petrography of Sandstone Rocks
3.2.1. Litharenite
3.2.2. Phyllarenite
3.2.3. Sedlithite
3.3. Feldspathic Litharenite
3.3.1. Phyllarenite
3.3.2. Volcanic Arenite
3.4. Sandstone Composition of the Kuldana Formation
Interpretation
3.5. Petrography of Carbonate Rocks
3.5.1. Mudstone
Interpretation
3.5.2. Wackstone
Interpretation
3.5.3. Packstone
Interpretation
3.6. Tectonic Settings and Provenance
3.7. Paleoclimatic Conditions
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Sample No. | K-14 | K-15 | K-16a | K-16b | K-17 | K-19 | K-20 | K-21 | K-22 | K-23 | K-24 | K-25 | K-26 | K-27 | K-28 | K-29a | K-29b | K-30 | K-35 | K-36 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Quartz | Polycrystalline | 2–3 grains | 5 | 5 | 12 | 12 | 8 | 10 | 8 | 5 | 6 | 1 | 3 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 2 |
>3 grains | 3 | 5 | 6 | 8 | 9 | 8 | 7 | 3 | 3 | 5 | 5 | 8 | 5 | 3 | 6 | 3 | 5 | 2 | 5 | 3 | ||
Monocrystalline | Qnu | 17 | 15 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 6 | 10 | 5 | 5 | 20 | 15 | 15 | 26 | 24 | 25 | 20 | 20 | 25 | 24 | 25 | |
Qu | 8 | 12 | 10 | 10 | 12 | 11 | 12 | 6 | 10 | 3 | 5 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 10 | 4 | 10 | 4 | 4 | ||
Feldspar | Plagioclase | 3 | - | 2 | 2 | - | 1 | 1 | - | 2 | 1 | - | - | 2 | 2 | - | 2 | 3 | - | - | - | |
Perthite | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | - | ||
Microcline Perthite | 2 | 1 | - | - | 1 | - | 1 | 1 | - | - | - | - | 2 | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | 1 | ||
Orthoclase | 1 | 4 | - | 2 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 5 | - | 1 | 4 | 1 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 1 | ||
Rock Fragments | Igneous | Rhyolite | 6 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 4 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 1 | 2 | - | 5 | - | 1 | - | 5 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 3 |
Basalt | 1 | - | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 7 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 4 | 2 | 2 | - | 1 | - | ||
Metamorphic | Slates | 5 | 2 | 2 | 5 | 6 | 8 | 8 | - | - | 5 | 2 | 3 | 8 | 3 | 5 | 6 | - | 2 | - | 5 | |
Schist | - | - | 1 | 1 | - | - | - | 3 | 5 | 3 | 7 | - | - | 4 | - | 2 | 8 | - | 2 | - | ||
Gneisses | - | - | 1 | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | 2 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | ||
Quartzite | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 4 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | ||
Greenstone | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 3 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | ||
Sedimentary | Sandstone | 3 | 3 | 5 | 5 | 3 | 4 | 6 | 5 | 7 | 5 | 2 | 3 | 5 | 8 | - | 5 | 2 | 7 | 5 | - | |
Siltstone | 2 | 5 | - | - | - | 1 | 2 | 3 | 2 | 3 | 5 | - | 3 | - | 3 | 3 | - | 2 | - | 2 | ||
Dolostone | - | 5 | - | - | 2 | - | - | - | - | - | - | 5 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | ||
Limestone | - | 6 | 18 | 7 | 7 | 6 | 7 | 15 | 12 | 13 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 7 | ||
Accessory Minerals | Rutile | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | - | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | 10 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | |
Opaque | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | 1 | - | - | 3 | 1 | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | ||
Tourmaline | - | 1 | 2 | 1 | - | - | 1 | - | 1 | - | 1 | 1 | - | 1 | 1 | - | 2 | - | 1 | - | ||
Apatite | - | - | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | ||
Zircon | - | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | - | 1 | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | 1 | - | ||
Epidote | - | - | - | - | 1 | 1 | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | ||
Spinel | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | 1 | - | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | ||
Hematite | 1 | 3 | 5 | 4 | 6 | 8 | 5 | 4 | - | 10 | - | - | 8 | 8 | 3 | 5 | - | 4 | 4 | 3 | ||
Muscovite | - | - | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | - | - | - | 1 | 3 | 1 | 1 | - | - | ||
Biotite | - | - | 1 | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 3 | 2 | ||
Chlorite | 3 | - | 1 | 1 | 1 | - | - | - | 1 | 1 | 2 | - | - | - | - | 1 | - | 1 | - | - | ||
Pumpellyite | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | ||
Sericite | 1 | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | ||
Prehnite | 3 | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | ||
Cementing Material | Calcite | 12 | 12 | - | 13 | 15 | 13 | 12 | 33 | 20 | 15 | 12 | 17 | 13 | - | 9 | 12 | 15 | 25 | 15 | 13 | |
Kaolinite Clay | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 2 | - | 10 | 11 | - | 8 | - | 8 | 5 | ||
Hematite | 5 | 6 | - | 10 | 10 | 11 | 6 | 3 | 6 | - | 12 | - | 8 | 13 | 9 | 8 | 7 | 6 | 9 | 6 | ||
Dolomite | 1 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | ||
Chlorite | - | - | 3 | - | - | - | - | - | 5 | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | 3 | - | - | 6 | ||
Matrix | - | 10 | 7 | 10 | 3 | - | 2 | - | 3 | 5 | 7 | 12 | 8 | 12 | 13 | 10 | 6 | 12 | 8 | 9 | 12 | |
Calcite Veins | - | 1 | - | 2 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 6 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | |
Calcite Concretions | - | 5 | 2 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | |
Total | - | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 |
S# | QtFL% | QmFLt% | QmPK% | LmLvLs% | QpLvmLsm% | RgRmRs% | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Qt | F | L | Qm | F | Lt | Qm | P | K | Lm | Lv | Ls | Qp | Lvm | Lsm | Rs | Rm | Rg | |
K-14 | 58.9 | 10.7 | 30.3 | 37.3 | 25.3 | 37.3 | 80.6 | 9.6 | 9.6 | 29.4 | 41.1 | 29.4 | 32 | 28 | 40 | 50 | 50 | 0 |
K-15 | 66 | 8.9 | 25 | 41.5 | 21.5 | 36.9 | 84.3 | 0 | 15.6 | 14.2 | 28.5 | 57.1 | 41.6 | 16.6 | 41.6 | 20 | 80 | 0 |
K-16a | 70.5 | 5.8 | 23.5 | 30 | 20 | 50 | 85.7 | 14.2 | 0 | 33.3 | 25 | 41.6 | 60 | 10 | 30 | 44.4 | 55.5 | 0 |
K-16b | 68.4 | 7 | 24.5 | 28.3 | 20.9 | 50.7 | 82.6 | 8.6 | 8.6 | 42.8 | 21.4 | 35.7 | 58.8 | 8.8 | 32.3 | 54.5 | 45.4 | 0 |
K-17 | 70.9 | 3.6 | 25.4 | 32.8 | 20.9 | 46.2 | 91.6 | 0 | 8.3 | 42.8 | 35.7 | 21.4 | 54.8 | 16.1 | 29 | 66.6 | 33.3 | 0 |
K-19 | 64.8 | 3.7 | 31.4 | 24.6 | 24.6 | 50.7 | 89.4 | 5.2 | 5.2 | 52.9 | 17.6 | 29.4 | 51.4 | 8.5 | 40 | 64.2 | 35.7 | 0 |
K-20 | 58.7 | 9.5 | 31.7 | 28.5 | 25.9 | 45.4 | 78.5 | 3.5 | 17.8 | 40 | 20 | 40 | 42.8 | 11.4 | 45.7 | 50 | 50 | 0 |
k-21 | 47.5 | 5 | 47.5 | 19.3 | 33.3 | 47.3 | 84.6 | 0 | 15.3 | 31.5 | 26.3 | 42.1 | 29.6 | 18.5 | 51.8 | 42.8 | 57.1 | 0 |
K-22 | 51 | 10.6 | 38.2 | 25 | 30 | 45 | 75 | 10 | 15 | 27.7 | 22.2 | 50 | 30 | 23.3 | 46.6 | 35.7 | 64.2 | 0 |
K-23 | 54.7 | 3.7 | 41.5 | 31.5 | 30.1 | 38.3 | 92 | 4 | 4 | 36.3 | 27.2 | 36.3 | 21.4 | 21.4 | 57.1 | 50 | 50 | 0 |
K-24 | 52.8 | 3.7 | 43.3 | 27 | 31 | 41.8 | 90.9 | 0 | 9.1 | 39.1 | 30.4 | 30.4 | 25.8 | 22.5 | 51.6 | 56.25 | 43.75 | 0 |
K-25 | 54.7 | 9.4 | 35.8 | 26.8 | 28.3 | 44.7 | 78.2 | 0 | 21.7 | 47.3 | 36.8 | 15.7 | 36.6 | 23.3 | 40 | 75 | 25 | 0 |
K-26 | 61.4 | 7 | 31.5 | 40.8 | 25.3 | 33.8 | 87.8 | 6 | 6 | 44.4 | 11.1 | 44.4 | 25 | 8.3 | 66.6 | 50 | 50 | 0 |
K-27 | 60.3 | 5.6 | 33.9 | 41.1 | 26.4 | 32.3 | 90.3 | 6.4 | 3.2 | 38.8 | 16.6 | 44.4 | 18.1 | 13.6 | 68.1 | 46.6 | 53.3 | 0 |
K-28 | 71.4 | 7.1 | 21.4 | 46.8 | 18.7 | 34.3 | 88.2 | 0 | 11.7 | 41.6 | 33.3 | 25 | 45.4 | 18.1 | 36.3 | 62.5 | 37.5 | 0 |
k-29a | 57.8 | 6.2 | 35.9 | 36.1 | 27.7 | 36.1 | 88.2 | 5.8 | 5.8 | 34.7 | 30.4 | 34.7 | 23.3 | 23.3 | 53.3 | 50 | 50 | 0 |
K-29b | 61.5 | 13.4 | 25 | 41.3 | 22.4 | 36.2 | 77.4 | 9.6 | 12.9 | 61.5 | 23 | 15.3 | 38.1 | 14.2 | 47.6 | 80 | 20 | 0 |
K-30 | 74 | 3.7 | 22.2 | 54.6 | 18.7 | 26.5 | 94.5 | 0 | 5.4 | 16.6 | 8.3 | 75 | 29.4 | 5.8 | 64.7 | 18.1 | 81.8 | 0 |
K-35 | 74 | 6 | 20 | 49.1 | 17.5 | 33.3 | 90.3 | 3.2 | 6.4 | 20 | 30 | 50 | 47.3 | 15.7 | 36.8 | 28.5 | 71.4 | 0 |
K-36 | 73.9 | 4.3 | 21.7 | 53.7 | 18.5 | 27.7 | 93.5 | 0 | 6.4 | 50 | 30 | 20 | 33.3 | 20 | 46.6 | 71.4 | 28.5 | 0 |
Means | 62.6 | 6.7 | 30.5 | 35.8 | 24.3 | 39.7 | 86.2 | 4.3 | 9.4 | 37.2 | 25.7 | 36.9 | 37.2 | 16.4 | 46.3 | 50.8 | 49.1 | |
Standard Deviation | 7.9 | 2.6 | 5.5 | 5.9 | 4.9 | 6.3 | 9.2 | 2 | 3 | 6.1 | 5 | 6 | 6.1 | 4 | 6.8 | 7.1 | 7 | 0 |
S. No | |
---|---|
1. | Quartzose Grains (Qt = Q = Qm + Qp) Qt = total quartzose grains |
Qm = monocrystalline quartz (Qm = Qu + Qnu) | |
Qu = Undulatory monocrystalline quartz | |
Qnu = Non undulatory monocrystalline quartz | |
Qp = polycrystalline quartz (Qp = Qp2–3 + Qp > 3) Qp2–3 = Polycrystalline quartz, 2–3 grains | |
Qp > 3 = Polycrystalline quartz, more than 3 grains | |
2. | Feldspar Grains (F = P + K) |
F = Total feldspar grains P = Plagioclase feldspar K = Potassium feldspar | |
3. | Unstable lithic Fragments (L = Lsm + Lvm) L = total unstable lithic fragments |
Lsm = total sedimentary and metasedimentary fragments (Lsm = Ls + Lm) | |
Ls = sedimentary lithic fragments | |
Lm = metasedimentary lithic fragments | |
Lvm = total volcanic and metavolcanic lithic fragments | |
Lv = total volcanic lithic fragments | |
VRF = volcanic-plutonic rock fragments | |
SRF = sedimentary rock fragments including extrabasinal detrital limeclasts | |
MRF = metamorphic rock fragments | |
4. | Total Lithic Fragments (Lt = L + Qp) |
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Bilal, A.; Mughal, M.S.; Janjuhah, H.T.; Ali, J.; Niaz, A.; Kontakiotis, G.; Antonarakou, A.; Usman, M.; Hussain, S.A.; Yang, R. Petrography and Provenance of the Sub-Himalayan Kuldana Formation: Implications for Tectonic Setting and Palaeoclimatic Conditions. Minerals 2022, 12, 794. https://doi.org/10.3390/min12070794
Bilal A, Mughal MS, Janjuhah HT, Ali J, Niaz A, Kontakiotis G, Antonarakou A, Usman M, Hussain SA, Yang R. Petrography and Provenance of the Sub-Himalayan Kuldana Formation: Implications for Tectonic Setting and Palaeoclimatic Conditions. Minerals. 2022; 12(7):794. https://doi.org/10.3390/min12070794
Chicago/Turabian StyleBilal, Ahmer, Muhammad Saleem Mughal, Hammad Tariq Janjuhah, Johar Ali, Abrar Niaz, George Kontakiotis, Assimina Antonarakou, Muhammad Usman, Syed Asim Hussain, and Renchao Yang. 2022. "Petrography and Provenance of the Sub-Himalayan Kuldana Formation: Implications for Tectonic Setting and Palaeoclimatic Conditions" Minerals 12, no. 7: 794. https://doi.org/10.3390/min12070794