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Article

Structural and Kinematic Analysis of the Xipu Dome in the Tingri Area, Southern Tibet, and New Exploration Discoveries

by
Songtao Yan
1,
Ailing Ding
2,*,
Jie Wang
1,
Hao Huang
1,
Hu Li
1,3,
Song Chen
1,
Tao Liu
1 and
Lidong Zhu
4
1
Research Center of Applied Geology of China Geological Survey, Chengdu 610036, China
2
School of Software Engineering, Chengdu University of Information Technology, Chengdu 610225, China
3
School of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu 610059, China
4
Institute of Sedimentary Geology, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu 610059, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Minerals 2024, 14(12), 1188; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14121188
Submission received: 17 October 2024 / Revised: 20 November 2024 / Accepted: 21 November 2024 / Published: 22 November 2024
(This article belongs to the Section Mineral Exploration Methods and Applications)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The newly delineated Xipu Dome, located in the central North Himalayan Gneiss Dome (NHGD), exhibits a significant spatiotemporal relationship with Himalayan polymetallic mineralization. Based on field geological surveys and geochronological analyses, this study provides a comprehensive assessment of the lithological assemblage, tectonic deformation, and metallogenic processes of the Xipu Dome. The findings reveal a three-tiered structure: the core consists of early Paleozoic granitic gneiss (523 Ma) and Miocene leucogranite (13.5 Ma), overlain by a cover of low-grade metamorphic or unmetamorphosed sedimentary rocks, and a detachment zone composed of heavily deformed schists and phyllites. The Xipu Dome underwent three phases of tectonic deformation: a southward thrust caused by continental collision, northward extensional activity driven by the South Tibet Detachment System (STDS), and gravitational collapse and downslope sliding following the emplacement of the dome. Two types of mineralization were identified: structural hydrothermal Au-Cu polymetallic deposits related to detachment and skarn-type Cu-Ag polymetallic deposits associated with leucogranite intrusion. This study enhances the understanding of the spatial distribution and metallogenic potential within the Himalayan Be-Sn rare metal-Pb-Zn-Sb-Au belt, offering a valuable direction for strategic mineral exploration in the Tethyan Himalaya (TH).

1. Introduction

The North Himalayan Gneiss Dome (NHGD) lies within a narrow, elongated zone between the Yarlung Zangbo Suture Zone (YZSZ) and the South Tibetan Detachment System (STDS) referred to as the Tethyan Himalaya (TH). This region is characterized by a bead-like ‘double dome’ structure bounded by the Tingri–Gamba fault zone (TGFZ) (Figure 1a). Domes such as Saga, Malashan, and Kangmar consist of Paleozoic granitic gneisses (558–484 Ma) [1,2] and Cenozoic leucogranites (44–7 Ma) [3,4], with peripheral low-grade metamorphic Paleozoic to Mesozoic sedimentary sequences [5,6].
The NHGD provides crucial evidence of intense deformation, magmatic activity, and high-grade metamorphism during the Cenozoic orogeny. However, despite extensive studies on deformation structures and mineralization characteristics, gaps remain in understanding the tectonic evolution of lesser-studied domes like Xipu. Addressing these gaps is essential to unlocking the NHGD’s full metallogenic potential.
The formation of these domes is closely associated with extensional collapse, a process in which thickened crust becomes gravitationally unstable and undergoes extension. Similar processes are observed in the Variscan belt of NW Iberia, where the Padrón migmatitic dome exemplifies the dynamics of extensional flow during gravitational collapse [7,8,9]. Lessons learned from its structural and geochronological studies provide a comparative framework for deciphering the tectonic history of the Xipu Dome.
The NHGD has undergone three distinct phases of tectonomagmatic-mineralization events: syn-collisional continental convergence, late-collisional tectonic transition, and post-collisional crustal extension [10]. These processes created favorable conditions for large-scale metallogenesis, resulting in the formation of the Himalayan Be-Sn rare metal-Pb-Zn-Sb-Au mineralization belt [11]. Recent investigations have discovered several large to super-large Be and other rare metal deposits [12], suggesting that this region could become a potential strategic reserve base for Au-Sb and Be-Sn rare metals [13,14,15,16,17].
In this context, the discovery of the Xipu Dome in the central NHGD, located in the Tingri area, represents a significant advancement. Previous surveys (e.g., Figure 1b) had classified it as a small Eocene granite stock, failing to recognize its true nature as a migmatitic dome formed during post-collisional extensional collapse. Detailed structural and lithological analyses reveal that, similar to the Padrón Dome, the Xipu Dome exhibits features indicative of extensional tectonics [8,18]. The identification of Au-Cu polymetallic mineralization in the Xipu Dome not only expands the known metallogenic spectrum of the NHGD but also sheds light on the previously underexplored relationship between post-collisional extensional tectonics and rare metal mineralization.
This work not only establishes a foundation for reconstructing the tectonic evolution of the Xipu Dome but also confirms the potential of the Himalayan metallogenic belt to host large-scale Au polymetallic deposits. By drawing comparisons with other migmatitic domes globally, this study highlights the broader implications of extensional tectonics and metallogenesis while emphasizing the strategic economic value of the NHGD.
Minerals 14 01188 g001
Figure 1. Simplified geological map of the Himalayan orogen ((a), modified from [19]) and the central Tethyan Himalaya ((b), from [20]).
Figure 1. Simplified geological map of the Himalayan orogen ((a), modified from [19]) and the central Tethyan Himalaya ((b), from [20]).
Minerals 14 01188 g001

2. Geological Background

The Himalayan orogeny is one of the most notable Cenozoic geological landscapes formed by the collision between the Indian and Eurasian plates [21]. This orogeny spans a vast area south of the YZSZ, situated on the northern Indian plate. The orogenic belt is divided into four tectonic units: the TH, the Greater Himalaya (GH), the Lesser Himalaya (LH), and the Sub-Himalaya (SH), each bounded by the STDS, the Main Central Thrust (MCT), the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT), and the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT), respectively [22,23]. The study area is situated within the TH and consists of a Late Paleozoic to Eocene passive continental margin sequence, including shallow marine carbonate and clastic rocks, as well as fluvial-lacustrine molasse formations deposited since the Oligocene [24,25]. The Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous sedimentary rocks are well-preserved [26] (Figure 1b), and the primary lithologies include limestone, sandstone, siltstone, and shale, as well as low-grade metamorphic slate and phyllite [27].
The weakly metamorphosed strata in the study area include the Upper Jurassic Weimei Formation and the Cretaceous Jiabula Formation, which consist of marine clastic rocks interbedded with carbonates (Figure 2). The region has undergone extensive and complex tectono-sedimentary evolution since the Precambrian Pan-African orogeny, with significant events occurring during the Permian. This period was characterized by the expansion, subduction, and collision of the Neo-Tethys Ocean, along with large-scale extensional detachment [28]. These processes resulted in intense tectonic activity and the formation of a series of northward-dipping fold-thrust belts.
The TH experienced significant magmatic activity, primarily during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic, with localized occurrences in the early Paleozoic [29,30,31,32]. Early Paleozoic magmatism, dated between 558 and 484 Ma, underwent intense ductile shear deformation, reflecting tectonomagmatic events related to the Pan-African orogeny [2,33]. Mesozoic magmatism is characterized by Early Cretaceous bimodal volcanic rocks that formed in an intracontinental rift between 142 and 130 Ma. This bimodal volcanism is associated with the Kerguelen mantle plume, which contributed to the breakup of East Gondwana [34,35,36]. Cenozoic magmatism is characterized by two phases of leucogranitic intrusions during the Eocene and Miocene. The Eocene leucogranites, emplaced between 44 and 40 Ma, reflect partial melting of the middle to lower crust during the main collision between the Indian and Eurasian plates [30,37,38]. By contrast, the Miocene leucogranites, emplaced between 21 and 13 Ma, indicate partial melting of metapelitic rocks associated with extensional detachment processes [32].

3. Methods and Results

Zircon U-Pb geochronological analyses were conducted on granitic gneiss (GGDN) and monzonitic granite (XPDN) samples from the core of the Xipu Dome in the Tingri area, with sampling locations shown in Figure 2. Zircon selection, target preparation, and cathodoluminescence (CL) imaging were carried out at the Laboratory of the Hebei Institute of Regional Geological Survey and Mineral Resources. The samples were crushed, and zircons were separated using heavy liquid and magnetic separation techniques. High-purity transparent zircons free of cracks or inclusions were selected, mounted in epoxy resin, and polished to expose the zircon cores. Zircon ages were determined using laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) at the Institute of Mineral Resources, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences. The detailed experimental procedures were described by Hou et al. (2009) [39]. Single-spot ablation with a 30 μm laser spot diameter was employed. External standards Zircon GJ-1 (U-Pb dating standard from the Continental Geochemistry and Metallogenic Processes Research Center, Macquarie University, Australia) and Plesovice (U-Pb dating standard from the Department of Earth Science, University of Bergen, Norway) were employed for instrument calibration and accuracy validation. The weighted mean ages of 206Pb/238U for GJ-1 and Plesovice were 612 ± 2 Ma and 334 ± 2 Ma, respectively, which are consistent with the recommended values (610 ± 1.7 Ma for GJ-1 and 337 ± 1 Ma for Plesovice) within the error range, as reported in the literature [40,41]. Isotopic ratio data were processed using ICPMS DataCal 4.6 software [42], and concordia diagrams were generated with Isoplot 4.15 software [42]. The relevant test results are presented in Table A1.
Zircons from the granitic gneiss (GGDN) are mostly colorless, transparent, and prismatic, with length-to-width ratios ranging from 1.5:1 to 3:1. CL images show well-developed oscillatory zoning, characteristic of magmatic zircons (Figure 3a). A total of 21 spots were analyzed, yielding 206Pb/238U ages ranging from 137 Ma to 2469 Ma. Among these, 13 spots have 206Pb/238U ages between 512 Ma and 543 Ma (Figure 3b), with a weighted average age of 523 ± 3 Ma (Figure 3c), indicating an early Paleozoic crystallization age for the granitic gneiss. This age aligns with the formation ages of gneisses in several domes within the NHGD, including Yalaxiangbo (536–510 Ma) [43,44], Lagrang (514 Ma) [45], Kangmar (527–506 Ma) [46], and Mabja (530–518 Ma) [47]. It reflects Pan-African to early Paleozoic orogenic events that influenced the metamorphic basement along the northern Indian continent [48]. Seven spots yielded 206Pb/238U ages between 2469 Ma and 870 Ma, representing older inherited zircons. One spot with a 206Pb/238U age of 137 Ma, indicates a metamorphic age related to a late tectonothermal event, corresponding to Cretaceous intracontinental rift magmatism in the TH [34,35,49].
Zircons from the monzonitic granite (XPDN) exhibit prominent zoning, distinct from the colorless, transparent zircons in the gneiss. These zircons display a characteristic ‘core-mantle-edge’ structure, with the core showing light-colored rhythmic oscillatory zoning and the edge a narrower dark-colored zone (Figure 4a). A total of 30 valid spots were analyzed, yielding 206Pb/238U ages ranging from 13 Ma to 585 Ma. Among these, 18 spots have 206Pb/238U ages between 13 Ma and 15 Ma (Figure 4b), with a weighted average age of 13.5 ± 0.3 Ma (Figure 4c), representing the crystallization age of the monzonitic granite. This age aligns with the diagenetic ages of leucogranites in other domes, such as the Conadong muscovite granite (16–14 Ma) [50] and the Yalaxiangbo monzonitic granite (13–12 Ma) [51,52], both controlled by Miocene east–west extensional tectonics [1]. The remaining 12 zircons are inherited, with three showing ages between 447 Ma and 585 Ma, corresponding to Pan-African early Paleozoic magmatism. Four zircons yielded ages ranging from 72 Ma to 169 Ma, associated with the late Jurassic to early Cretaceous intracontinental rifting events. The remaining five zircons yielded ages between 19 Ma and 45 Ma, corresponding to deep penetration during the STDS movement (43 Ma to 26 Ma) and late-stage magmatic diapirism (23 Ma to 19 Ma) [1].

4. Structural and Lithological Characteristics

The Xipu Dome is located in Kemar Township, Tingri County, Shigatse City, and situated between the Tingri Dome and Lagrang Dome in the central NHGD (Figure 1b). Structurally, the Xipu Dome is divided into three units: the core, detachment zone, and cover (Figure 5a). Its rock composition and tectonic deformation resemble those of other domes, such as the Conadong Dome and Lalong Dome. The core consists of mylonitic granitic gneiss and leucogranite, while the detachment zone is characterized by a low-angle ductile shear zone dominated by mica-schist and phyllite with intense plastic deformation. The cover primarily comprises low-grade metamorphic or unmetamorphosed sand-slate interbedded with carbonates. The Xipu Dome has experienced three major phases of structural deformation. The first phase is characterized by a north-to-south thrust related to continental collision. The second phase involves a south-to-north extension associated with extensional thinning of the STDS, marking the main phase of dome deformation. The third phase is characterized by gravitational collapse and downslope sliding following the dome’s emplacement.

4.1. Core of the Dome

The core unit primarily comprises early Paleozoic granitic gneiss and Miocene leucogranite. The granitic gneiss in the western core appears gray with lepidoblastic or porphyroblastic textures and a gneissic structure. Its mineral composition includes plagioclase, K-feldspar, quartz, muscovite, biotite, and minor amounts of hornblende, garnet, and tourmaline (Figure 5f). The porphyroblasts are mainly composed of K-feldspar, plagioclase, and garnet and exhibit augen structures (Figure 5e). The minerals show a directional arrangement, with distinctly alternating dark layers of biotite and light layers of feldspar and quartz (Figure 5c). The leucogranite consists of monzonitic granite and porphyritic plagioclase granite, with a gradual transition between them. The monzonitic granite is grayish-white, displaying porphyritic or granitic textures and a massive structure. Its mineral composition includes feldspar, quartz, muscovite, biotite, and small amounts of garnet and tourmaline. It has intrusive contacts with the granitic gneiss (Figure 5b), with small dikes intruding or intersecting the gneiss. In the eastern dome, the contact zone between the monzonitic granite and the Weimei Formation carbonate rocks forms a skarn belt with developed Cu mineralization. Similar skarn zones are present in the Lalong Dome, enriched in Be-Nb-Ta rare metals [53], and in the Conadong Dome, enriched in W-Sn deposits [1]. Numerous late-stage quartz veins are observed crosscutting the leucogranite, but no pegmatite veins have been identified.
This structural unit near the detachment zone exhibits a high degree of deformation, commonly characterized by mylonitization. The rocks have undergone strong brittle-ductile shear, developing abundant S-C fabrics, δ-type porphyroclasts, augen structures, and asymmetric folds. Kinematic analysis indicates two phases of tectonic deformation. The first phase is characterized by small thrust faults, as indicated by quartz lenses, boudinage structures (Figure 6a), and the tails of rotated porphyroclasts, all suggesting a southward thrust. The second phase is marked by detachment-related ‘Z’-shaped asymmetric folds in quartz veins (Figure 6b) and S-C fabrics, indicating northward extension. Additionally, gold veins within the leucogranite are distributed in a NE or NNE direction in a left-lateral en echelon pattern, suggesting an E–W trending strike-slip extensional structure. However, this phase of deformation is not prominently observed in the Xipu Dome.

4.2. Detachment Zone

The detachment zone of the dome is a ductile shear zone, ranging from 200 to 1500 m in width. The rocks consist of mylonitic mica quartz schist, biotite schist, garnet schist, and andalusite phyllite (Figure 6c). The mineral assemblage includes quartz, feldspar, biotite, and muscovite, along with characteristic metamorphic minerals such as andalusite, garnet, staurolite, sillimanite, and tourmaline. The detachment zone is characterized by foliation replacement. Based on the residual mineral assemblages, the protolith comprises sandstones, siltstones, and mudstones from the TH sedimentary sequence.
The detachment zone exhibits well-developed foliations and lineations with a mylonitic structure (Figure 7a), including quartz lenses, augen porphyroclasts (Figure 7b), S-C fabrics (Figure 7c,d), and various types of folds, such as outward-dipping foliation folds, recumbent folds, rootless folds, sheath folds, and flow folds around the dome. Kinematic analysis reveals three phases of tectonic deformation. The first phase is marked by early penetrative foliations (Figure 6c), drag folds (Figure 6d), and rotating quartz porphyroclasts (Figure 6e), all indicating a north-to-south thrust. The second phase is characterized by quartz lenses and augen structures, suggesting south-to-north extensional deformation (Figure 6f), along with outward-dipping tight detachment folds around the dome (Figure 6d). The third phase involves the development of late-stage mineral stretching lineations and striations along early dome-circumferential brittle-ductile foliations. These striations and step structures indicate outward collapse and downslope sliding of the dome.

4.3. Cover of the Dome

The cover unit comprises epimetamorphic sedimentary rocks from the Upper Jurassic Weimei Formation and the Cretaceous Jiabula Formation. These rocks include siltstone, limestone, silty slate, and phyllite, with localized development of hornfels (Figure 5d) and skarn due to thermal contact metamorphism. Characteristic metamorphic minerals include cordierite, garnet, chlorite, epidote, diopside, and tremolite. The eastern and southern sides of the Xipu Dome have been significantly modified by detachment shearing, forming two detachment blocks (Figure 2).
The cover exhibits strong fold deformation. Kinematic analysis reveals three phases of tectonic deformation. The first phase is marked by drag folds along early faults, indicating a southward thrust (Figure 6g). The second phase involves the development of small ‘M’-shaped compound folds, inclined plunging folds, asymmetrical folds, and fracture cleavages, corresponding to A-type detachment folds triggered by dome uplift (Figure 6g). The third phase is characterized by outward-dipping striations and mineral stretching lineations on the dome (Figure 6h), distributed along the first-phase foliations. The pitch direction of the lineations generally aligns with the attitude of the strata in the cover.

5. New Discoveries in Mineral Exploration

The study area belongs to the Himalayan Be-Sn rare metal-Pb-Zn-Sb-Au metallogenic belt, rich in strategic mineral resources such as Au, Sb, and Be, which are crucial for national resource allocation [11]. Extensive mineral exploration and research have been conducted in the Kangmar–Lhoze region, located in the eastern segment of this metallogenic belt (Figure 1). The Zaxikang ore concentration district is the largest source of Au-Sb-Pb-Zn-Sn-W-Be polymetallic deposits in NHGD, with 22 deposits, including eight Au-Sb, ten Pb-Zn, and four rare metal deposits. Significant deposits include the Zaxikang, Keyue, Zedang Pb-Zn, Mazhala, Jianagagupu, Jiangcang, Lamu Youta Au (-Sb), Suoyue Sb, and Lalong and Conadong Be deposits [54]. In this study, structural hydrothermal Au-Cu polymetallic deposits and skarn-type Cu-Ag polymetallic deposits were discovered in the newly redefined Xipu Dome, located in the central segment of the metallogenic belt in the Tingri area. These findings provide crucial guidance for future mineral exploration in this metallogenic belt.

5.1. Geological Background of Mineralization

The strata at the dome’s cover consist of the Upper Jurassic Weimei Formation and Cretaceous Jiabula Formation, comprising low-grade metamorphic lithic sandstone, siltstone, slate, and limestone. The western core exposes early Paleozoic granitic gneiss. The strata have undergone significant regional dynamic and thermal contact metamorphism due to dome uplift. The characteristic ‘fire-skin’ phenomenon, typical of Gangdese porphyry Cu deposits, is well-developed on the surface. Alteration types include silicification, skarnization, chloritization, propylitization, pyritization, ferritization, and hornfelsization, with silicification, skarnization, and propylitization closely associated with mineralization.
Fault structures related to mineralization include circular faults associated with dome detachment and left-lateral en echelon extensional structures related to east–west strike-slip extension (Figure 8). The expansion spaces created by these faults serve as ore-conducting and ore-hosting structures. These faults exhibit multi-period activities. Extensional detachment faults are distributed along the detachment zone as structural fracture zones, ranging from 20 to 150 m in width. Breccias, composed of quartz, quartz sandstone, slate, and skarn, indicate hydrothermal fluid filling in tension fractures formed by late-stage extensional detachment faults. Left-lateral en echelon extensional structures trend NE or NNE and are filled with arsenopyrite-bearing quartz veins, ranging from 0.5 to 1.5 m in width. These veins indicate mineral-bearing hydrothermal fluids entering extensional fractures during east–west strike-slip extension.
Anomaly HS-10 was identified during the 1:250,000 stream sediment survey in this area. The main anomalous elements include Au, Ag, Cu, Fe, Ti, and W, showing high anomaly coincidence and a clear enrichment trend. The Hg anomaly exhibits three-degree concentration zonation, with significant intensity and scale. The highest concentrations recorded are 36.4 ppb for Au and 187.2 ppm for Cu, with strong anomalies also observed in Ag, As, and Bi. The dome aligns well with hydroxyl and ferric contamination anomalies extracted from 1:50,000 remote sensing alteration information, which also show three-degree zonation. Additionally, 1:200,000 aeromagnetic data reveal positive anomalies, suggesting the presence of a large concealed intrusive body at depth, along with extensive mineralization and alteration.

5.2. Geological Characteristics of the Ore Bodies

The structural hydrothermal Au-Cu polymetallic deposits are primarily distributed within the detachment zone and leucogranite of the Xipu dome (Figure 9a). Eight gold veins have been identified (Figure 8). Arsenopyrite and pyrite are common, with arsenopyrite veins mainly hosted in quartziferous structural breccias and late-stage quartz veins, while pyrite and chalcopyrite mineralization are primarily found in sandstone- and slate-type structural breccias. Limonite and malachite mineralization also occur locally. The mineralization is classified into two types: structurally altered rock type and quartz vein type. The ore in the detachment zone belongs to the structurally altered rock type, distributed along the dome detachment crush belt (Figure 9b). The veins are hosted within quartz breccias (Figure 9d), ranging from several hundred to several thousand meters in length. The mineral composition is relatively simple (Figure 9e), dominated by arsenopyrite, followed by pyrite, chalcopyrite, and limonite (Figure 9g). The ore within the core leucogranite is of the quartz vein type (Figure 9c), with arsenopyrite as the predominant mineral (Figure 9f). The ore structures are mainly layered, thin-veined, spotty, densely disseminated, and crumby.
Five surface exploration projects were conducted to preliminarily assess five Au ore bodies within the detachment zone and core (Figure 8). Numerous arsenopyrite-pyrite-chalcopyrite veins were discovered on the surface, with arsenopyrite being the predominant mineral. The ore bodies have an average thickness of 4 to 9 m, and the veins align with the ring structure of the dome. The highest Au grade recorded is 5.21 g/t, with an average of 2.41 g/t, and the highest Cu grade is 0.88% (Table 1).
The skarn-type Cu-Ag polymetallic mineralization occurs within the lightly metasedimentary rocks of the dome cover. Mineralization is concentrated at the contact zones between skarns and silicified siltstones of the Weimei Formation (Figure 10a,c,d) and is closely related to leucogranite intrusion. On the eastern side of the ridge at a height of 6012, widespread skarn is observed in carbonates due to proximity to the granite, with densely developed fractures and fissures leading to concentrated Cu mineralization. By contrast, the layered limestones on the western side, farther from the granite and lacking skarn, show no Cu mineralization (Figure 10a). Observed alteration types include skarnization, silicification, propylitization, and ferritization, with skarnization and propylitization serving as key prospecting indicators. The propylitic alteration zone, approximately 1 to 3 m wide (Figure 10b), is associated with ferritization, malachite mineralization (Figure 10e), and azurite mineralization (Figure 10f), displaying colors ranging from reddish-brown to dark green and light blue. Ore minerals, including azurite, chalcopyrite, and minor pyrite, occur as micro-disseminated. A preliminary Cu mineralization assessment was conducted using the chip sampling method. All nine samples showed Cu grades exceeding 0.22%, with the highest at 9.60% and an average of 1.40%. Additionally, three samples exhibited Ag grades above 43 g/t, indicating strong prospecting potential for skarn-type Cu-Ag polymetallic deposits.

5.3. Exploration Direction

The TH region has experienced extensive basin deposition, tectonic deformation, and magmatic evolution since the Pan-African orogeny, particularly influenced by the expansion, subduction, and collisional orogeny of the Yarlung Zangbo Ocean, as well as large-scale extensional detachment [28,55]. These processes resulted in multi-stage tectonic deformation and frequent magmatic-hydrothermal activity, forming a vast tectonomagmatic-hydrothermal complex metallogenic system [32]. This system provided a favorable metallogenic background and ore-bearing space in the study area, leading to the formation of both structural hydrothermal Au-Cu polymetallic deposits related to detachment and skarn-type Cu-Ag polymetallic deposits associated with leucogranite emplacement.
The structural hydrothermal Au-Cu polymetallic ore bodies in the Xipu Dome occur as multiple ore vein groups, with the ore bodies taking vein-like, lenticular, and quasi-lamellar forms within the detachment zone and leucogranite. The detachment zone exhibits multi-stage activity, including early ductile shearing and late brittle fracturing, resulting in the formation of mylonite, tectonic breccia, and cataclasite distributed in a ring around the core. This zone acts as a primary conduit for fluid migration and a favorable site for disseminated mineralization, making it the main ore-conducting and ore-bearing structure in the area. The ore bodies are mainly controlled by brittle-ductile detachment faults and brittle normal faults within the detachment zone, similar to Langkazi-type Au deposits [56]. Within the leucogranite, the Au ore bodies fill NE- and NNE-trending fractures, displaying tenso-shear characteristics, where large spaces created by north–south strike-slip extension provide sites for vein formation. This is comparable to Mazhala-type Zhegu Sb-Au deposits [56]. The decollement structures between the layers and tenso-shear structures resulting from decoupling detachment are important ore-controlling factors and prospecting indicators for structural hydrothermal Au-Cu polymetallic deposits in the region.
The skarn-type Cu-Ag polymetallic ore bodies are hosted within the Weimei Formation skarns or skarnized carbonate in the Xipu Dome cover, where structural fractures are well-developed. The thinning and decompression of the crust due to STDS activity induced partial melting of meta-pelitic rocks, with magma intruding along the dome diapir channel. Ore-bearing hydrothermal fluids migrated along faults, metasomatizing the limestones to form skarn-type Cu-Ag polymetallic deposits [57]. In recent years, significant W-Sn-Be rare metal mineralization associated with skarns or skarnized marbles has been discovered in the Conadong and Lalong Domes [13,14]. These deposits are primarily enriched in W, Sn, and Be, with associated Cu, Pb, Zn, Bi, and Mo, and the mineralizing fluids are related to late-stage hydrothermal activities associated with leucogranite magmatism. The occurrence of hornfelsization, skarnization, and propylitization caused by leucogranite emplacement serves as important exploration indicators for skarn-type Cu-Ag polymetallic deposits.
The newly delineated Xipu Dome is characterized by a structural and lithological assemblage comprising an early Paleozoic granitic gneiss core (523 Ma), Miocene leucogranite (13.5 Ma), a cover of low-grade metamorphic or unmetamorphic sedimentary rocks, and a detachment zone composed of schists and phyllites. Two deposit types have been preliminarily identified: structural hydrothermal Au-Cu polymetallic deposits hosted in the detachment zone and NE- or NNE-trending extensional fractures within the dome core, and skarn-type Cu-Ag deposits hosted in the skarns or skarnized carbonates of the dome cover. The Xipu Dome shares similarities in rock composition, tectonic deformation, and zoned mineralization with the Conadong and Lalong Domes in the Zaxikang ore-concentrated area. The polymetallic mineralization in Xipu Dome is likely similar to the rare metal-W-Sn-Pb-Zn-Au-Sb-Ag metallogenic system found in these gneiss domes in eastern TH, controlled by extensional detachment structures and leucogranite magmatism, resulting in a zoned distribution from high-temperature to low-temperature mineralization [32].
Preliminary analysis of the rock assemblage and tectonic deformation of the Xipu Dome, combined with a summary of various metal mineralization types, has clarified the exploration direction for metal deposits within the dome. The high elevation of the newly delineated Xipu Dome, with mineralized areas mostly above 5500 m, limited our ability to conduct comprehensive large-scale surveys. The conclusions are based on limited geological surveys and preliminary assessments, indicating significant potential for further exploration of the Xipu Dome. Future efforts should focus on enhancing regional survey evaluations, particularly in identifying deeper or concealed gold-bearing vein groups within the detachment zone and leucogranite. Additionally, further exploration of rare metal mineralization indicators is recommended. Although no pegmatites were identified due to limited survey methods, field far view observations and macrophotographs suggest the potential presence of pegmatite veins within the leucogranite, warranting further investigation into pegmatite-type Li-Be mineralization. Previous studies in other domes within the Zaxikang ore-concentrated area have identified skarn-related W-Sn-Be mineralization, and the Xipu Dome also exhibits significant skarn-type Cu-Ag mineralization. Although no rare metals were identified by our team, future exploration should focus on evaluating Be-Nb-Ta rare metal content in the skarns. The delineation of the structural and lithological assemblage of the Xipu Dome in the Tingri area, along with the discovery of various types of mineralization, holds significant regional exploration potential. This could open new exploration opportunities in the central NHGD and provide a direction for the next phase of strategic exploration breakthroughs in southern Tibet.

6. Conclusions

(1) The newly identified Xipu Dome in the central NHGD is characterized by a three-tiered structural composition: the core consists of early Paleozoic granitic gneiss (523 Ma) and Miocene leucogranite (13.5 Ma), overlain by a cover of low-grade metamorphic or unmetamorphosed sedimentary rocks, and a detachment zone composed of heavily deformed schists and phyllites.
(2) The dome experienced three phases of tectonic deformation. The first phase involved a north-to-south thrust caused by continental collision. The second phase, representing the main stage, was characterized by south-to-north extension related to the STDS and crustal thinning. The third phase involved gravitational collapse and downslope sliding after emplacement.
(3) Two primary types of mineralization have been identified in the Xipu Dome: structural hydrothermal Au-Cu polymetallic deposits associated with detachment and skarn-type Cu-Ag polymetallic deposits related to leucogranite intrusion. These mineralizations provide a valuable direction for strategic mineral exploration in the TH.

Author Contributions

Investigation, methodology, and writing—original draft preparation, S.Y., A.D., J.W., S.C., T.L., and H.L.; project administration and data curation, A.D. and L.Z.; resources and writing—review and editing, S.Y., A.D., H.L., and H.H. funding acquisition, S.Y. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the China Geological Survey Project (No. DD20243073).

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Acknowledgments

We sincerely thank Chongyang Xin, Yangchun Wei, Peng Chen, and Hongrui Dai for their assistance during the fieldwork. The authors are grateful to the anonymous reviewers for their critical and constructive reviews, which greatly improved this manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Appendix A

Table A1. LA-ICP-MS Zircon U-Pb dating analytical data of the granitic gneiss (GGDN) and monzonitic granite (XPDN) from the Xipu Dome.
Table A1. LA-ICP-MS Zircon U-Pb dating analytical data of the granitic gneiss (GGDN) and monzonitic granite (XPDN) from the Xipu Dome.
PointsPbThUTh/UIsotope RatioIsotopic Age (Ma)
(ppm)207Pb/206Pb2σ207Pb/235U2σ206Pb/238U2σ207Pb/206Pb2σ207Pb/235U2σ206Pb/238U2σ
GGDN: Granitic gneiss
-11372171351.610.16370.003810.62880.32980.46710.0178249139248929246979
-21796404514.070.08980.00163.11230.10470.24960.0072141834143526143637
-356157819.080.10110.00353.99210.14590.28420.0056163765163030161228
-4286661.290.05540.00950.17540.03550.02140.0016262591623013710
-5430340.870.05880.00770.70420.08370.08790.0052575945365354330
-62197862.290.15970.00358.72260.23440.39660.0121245036230824215256
-7181551431.090.05980.00440.70830.06030.08600.00375551055413553222
-8241221161.050.06760.00361.36400.08520.14620.00598381138713787933
-969172189.350.10950.00284.77270.10880.31600.0072178745177919177035
-10333351662.020.05650.00260.65040.03070.08350.00234531165081951714
-11865880.740.05790.00480.66690.05420.08270.00274661065163351216
-121578820.950.07010.00401.41690.09410.14460.00689061278924087038
-13131161220.950.06200.00500.71590.05850.08370.0015676170548355189
-14171761511.160.05710.00240.66320.02870.08420.001549458517185219
-15339271.450.06430.00660.73860.06870.08590.00307541255624053118
-16413343770.890.05980.00190.69920.02450.08460.001459469538155249
-1711691180.580.05410.00360.62600.04370.08360.0015372150494275189
-1815831540.540.06000.00230.70290.02830.08510.001461185541175279
-19431944490.430.05670.00190.67180.02830.08560.0021480745221753012
-20121171011.160.05990.00300.71420.04220.08650.00255981075472553515
-21241812200.820.05870.00260.68660.02780.08570.0017554975311753010
XPDN: Monzonitic granite
-129119811611.030.05050.00290.01440.00080.00210.000121733151130.3
-218319660270.530.04580.00290.01380.00090.00220.000120842141140.4
-4151506230.240.05040.00300.01440.00080.00210.000021334151130.3
-58783440.230.04230.00340.01170.00090.00200.000118926121130.5
-628128722490.570.05470.00240.08510.00660.01120.0007398100836724.5
-723388700.040.06310.00520.20390.02590.02220.0013711177188221428.5
-8152686290.430.04850.00300.01380.00090.00210.000112427141130.4
-95222160.100.04390.00710.01190.00180.00200.000119835122130.6
-104330,18773944.080.10250.00950.01120.00330.00220.00011670173313140.4
-12171176960.170.05680.00370.01590.00100.00210.000148345161130.5
-14132064800.430.05050.00370.01670.00130.00240.000122035171150.4
-151134934050.100.04100.00480.01760.00270.00300.000221136183191.4
-1718341167580.500.04540.00290.01260.00070.00200.000112139131130.3
-18113454970.690.04800.00260.01360.00100.00200.000110221141130.6
-2016317240.040.05320.00320.19590.02960.02650.0038345351822516923.8
-21151046320.160.05080.00340.01400.00100.00200.000123256141130.4
-23821330.630.04720.00440.01440.00160.00220.00015816152140.5
-243625,57374583.430.06470.00510.02010.00190.00220.0001765167202140.5
-251347530.870.04490.00270.01280.00090.00210.00018923131130.4
-271076057950.760.05920.00180.77620.02790.09500.0018572675831658510.5
-2914262351670.510.04620.00390.01320.00110.00210.00015720131130.4
-302012728660.040.05030.00260.04930.00660.00690.000720939496454.7
-312624144640.050.04880.00330.03280.00240.00490.000113931332310.9
-3213456330.070.08210.00770.22480.04340.01740.001812481852063611111.3
-331262481.280.04650.00360.01340.00100.00210.0001208131140.4
-3444305320.060.05600.00250.55070.02500.07190.00224501004451644713.0
-3510013011780.110.05940.00180.60040.02330.07340.0021589674771545712.7
-361553624010.220.06760.00510.04900.00370.00530.0003855153494341.8
-382134620.030.07250.01200.03490.00420.00330.00021011336354211.4
-391744750.590.04950.00430.01400.00130.00200.000117239141130.4

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Minerals 14 01188 g002
Figure 2. Geological sketch map of the Xipu Dome in the Tingri area.
Figure 2. Geological sketch map of the Xipu Dome in the Tingri area.
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Figure 3. CL images (a), U-Pb concordia diagram (b), and weighted average age (c) of zircons from the Xipu granitic gneiss.
Figure 3. CL images (a), U-Pb concordia diagram (b), and weighted average age (c) of zircons from the Xipu granitic gneiss.
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Figure 4. CL images (a), U-Pb concordia diagram (b), and weighted average age (c) of zircons from the Xipu monzonitic granite.
Figure 4. CL images (a), U-Pb concordia diagram (b), and weighted average age (c) of zircons from the Xipu monzonitic granite.
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Figure 5. Representative lithological assemblage of the Xipu Dome. (a) Macroscopic geological features of the three units of the Xipu Dome; (b) intrusive contact between monzonitic granite and granitic gneiss; (c) granitic gneiss; (d) Hornfelsed siltstone; (e) micrograph showing augen structures in granitic gneiss; (f) micrograph of granitic gneiss. Abbreviations: Pl = plagioclase; Kfs = K-feldspar; Bt = biotite; Ms = muscovite; Qtz = quartz; Grt = garnet.
Figure 5. Representative lithological assemblage of the Xipu Dome. (a) Macroscopic geological features of the three units of the Xipu Dome; (b) intrusive contact between monzonitic granite and granitic gneiss; (c) granitic gneiss; (d) Hornfelsed siltstone; (e) micrograph showing augen structures in granitic gneiss; (f) micrograph of granitic gneiss. Abbreviations: Pl = plagioclase; Kfs = K-feldspar; Bt = biotite; Ms = muscovite; Qtz = quartz; Grt = garnet.
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Figure 6. Structural features of the Xipu Dome. (a) Early small thrust belt in the core; (b) asymmetric fold formed by late-stage extensional detachment in the core; (c) early penetrative foliation reformed by late fold in the detachment zone; (d) early reverse fault and late-stage extensional detachment in the detachment zone; (e) quartz rotating porphyroclasts formed by early thrust faulting; (f) quartz rotating porphyroclasts formed by late-stage extensional faulting; (g) early reverse fault and late extensional detachment in the cover; (h) stereogram of late-stage mineral stretching lineation around the dome’s cover. All stereographic projections are in the lower hemisphere.
Figure 6. Structural features of the Xipu Dome. (a) Early small thrust belt in the core; (b) asymmetric fold formed by late-stage extensional detachment in the core; (c) early penetrative foliation reformed by late fold in the detachment zone; (d) early reverse fault and late-stage extensional detachment in the detachment zone; (e) quartz rotating porphyroclasts formed by early thrust faulting; (f) quartz rotating porphyroclasts formed by late-stage extensional faulting; (g) early reverse fault and late extensional detachment in the cover; (h) stereogram of late-stage mineral stretching lineation around the dome’s cover. All stereographic projections are in the lower hemisphere.
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Figure 7. Microscopic images of ductile deformation. (a) Two stages of foliation structures in schist; (b) σ-shaped andalusite porphyroclasts; (c) S-C fabric in andalusite-bearing slaty schist; (d) S-C fabric in andalusite-sericite phyllite.
Figure 7. Microscopic images of ductile deformation. (a) Two stages of foliation structures in schist; (b) σ-shaped andalusite porphyroclasts; (c) S-C fabric in andalusite-bearing slaty schist; (d) S-C fabric in andalusite-sericite phyllite.
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Figure 8. Schematic map showing the gold veins and surface engineering of the Xipu Dome. 1—marble; 2—monzonitic granite; 3—porphyritic granite; 4—gold ore body; 5—quartz vein; 6—detachment fault; 7—brittle-ductile shear zone; 8—gneiss zone; 9—schistosity zone; 10—schistositized zone; 11—hornfels zone; 12—surface exploration projects and their serial numbers; 13—fold; 14—the first member of the Weimei Fm; 15—the second member of the Weimei Fm; 16—the third member of the Weimei Fm; 17—granitic gneiss; 18—leucogranite.
Figure 8. Schematic map showing the gold veins and surface engineering of the Xipu Dome. 1—marble; 2—monzonitic granite; 3—porphyritic granite; 4—gold ore body; 5—quartz vein; 6—detachment fault; 7—brittle-ductile shear zone; 8—gneiss zone; 9—schistosity zone; 10—schistositized zone; 11—hornfels zone; 12—surface exploration projects and their serial numbers; 13—fold; 14—the first member of the Weimei Fm; 15—the second member of the Weimei Fm; 16—the third member of the Weimei Fm; 17—granitic gneiss; 18—leucogranite.
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Figure 9. Macro- and micro-features of structural hydrothermal Au-Cu polymetallic deposit from the Xipu Dome. (a) Macroscopic photo of the Xipu Dome; (b) Macroscopic photo of the detachment crush belt; (c) Macroscopic photo of an arsenopyrite-bearing quartz vein; (d) Arsenopyrite-bearing quartz breccia; (e) Photo of arsenopyrite ore; (f) Arsenopyrite-bearing quartz vein; (g) Microscopic photo of arsenopyrite and pyrite.
Figure 9. Macro- and micro-features of structural hydrothermal Au-Cu polymetallic deposit from the Xipu Dome. (a) Macroscopic photo of the Xipu Dome; (b) Macroscopic photo of the detachment crush belt; (c) Macroscopic photo of an arsenopyrite-bearing quartz vein; (d) Arsenopyrite-bearing quartz breccia; (e) Photo of arsenopyrite ore; (f) Arsenopyrite-bearing quartz vein; (g) Microscopic photo of arsenopyrite and pyrite.
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Figure 10. Macro- and micro-features of skarn-type Cu-Ag polymetallic deposit from the Xipu Dome. (a) Macroscopic photo of skarn-type Cu-Au polymetallic mineralization; (b) Propylitic alteration zone; (c) Silicified siltstone; (d) Skarn; (e) Malachite mineralization; (f) Azurite mineralization.
Figure 10. Macro- and micro-features of skarn-type Cu-Ag polymetallic deposit from the Xipu Dome. (a) Macroscopic photo of skarn-type Cu-Au polymetallic mineralization; (b) Propylitic alteration zone; (c) Silicified siltstone; (d) Skarn; (e) Malachite mineralization; (f) Azurite mineralization.
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Table 1. Analysis results of Au-Cu polymetallic mineralization samples in the Xipu Dome.
Table 1. Analysis results of Au-Cu polymetallic mineralization samples in the Xipu Dome.
SamplesLength (m)Au (g/t)Ag (g/t)As (g/t)Cu (%)Pb (%)Sb (%)W (%)Zn (%)Sn (%)
BT01-23.50.611.10106,8760.110.01100.00440.01190.00510.0017
BT01-33.80.832.03117,1860.420.03490.00620.01500.05390.0086
BT02-23.74.172.19242,4750.470.06400.00410.03630.16310.0882
BT05-24.24.492.40298,1120.880.06480.00450.14650.26360.2126
BT06-24.95.212.50295,4240.710.11300.00490.09660.27440.1940
BT07-23.81.102.3699,9380.070.00600.01010.00100.00400.0033
BT07-34.20.491.83104,4400.080.00350.00660.00090.00390.0031
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Yan, S.; Ding, A.; Wang, J.; Huang, H.; Li, H.; Chen, S.; Liu, T.; Zhu, L. Structural and Kinematic Analysis of the Xipu Dome in the Tingri Area, Southern Tibet, and New Exploration Discoveries. Minerals 2024, 14, 1188. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14121188

AMA Style

Yan S, Ding A, Wang J, Huang H, Li H, Chen S, Liu T, Zhu L. Structural and Kinematic Analysis of the Xipu Dome in the Tingri Area, Southern Tibet, and New Exploration Discoveries. Minerals. 2024; 14(12):1188. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14121188

Chicago/Turabian Style

Yan, Songtao, Ailing Ding, Jie Wang, Hao Huang, Hu Li, Song Chen, Tao Liu, and Lidong Zhu. 2024. "Structural and Kinematic Analysis of the Xipu Dome in the Tingri Area, Southern Tibet, and New Exploration Discoveries" Minerals 14, no. 12: 1188. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14121188

APA Style

Yan, S., Ding, A., Wang, J., Huang, H., Li, H., Chen, S., Liu, T., & Zhu, L. (2024). Structural and Kinematic Analysis of the Xipu Dome in the Tingri Area, Southern Tibet, and New Exploration Discoveries. Minerals, 14(12), 1188. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14121188

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