Conservation Assessment of the Stone Blocks in the Northeast Corner of the Karnak Temples in Luxor, Egypt
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Architectural and Archaeological Context of the Case Study
3. Geographical and Geological Context
4. Quarries of Stone Blocks and Mineralogical Characterization
5. Hydrological and Climatological Context
6. Archaeoseismic and Flooding Hazard
7. Methodology
8. Results and Discussion
8.1. In Situ Assessment and Stone Decay
8.2. Stone Decay, Alteration, and Water Infiltration
8.3. Vegetation Change Detection
9. Restoration and Conservation Plan for Sandstone Blocks at Karnak
10. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Hydrological Context | Details |
---|---|
Main Water Sources | Nile River, canals, agricultural areas, drains, aquifers, urban waste. |
Contamination Sources | Agriculture (irrigation), soil and structure dissolution, groundwater salinity. |
Water Contaminants | Sodium (Na+), Potassium (K+), Sulfate (SO4−2), Chloride (Cl−1). |
Salinity Levels | - Nile River: 173 mg/L - Canal: 280 mg/L - Drains: 426 mg/L - Sacred Lake: 780 mg/L - Groundwater beneath Karnak: 524–1363 mg/L. |
Groundwater Aquifers | - Shallow Quaternary aquifer (5–95 m thickness) - Plio-Pleistocene aquifer (high salinity). |
Water Movement and Impact | Groundwater flows from agricultural areas eastward toward the Nile River, increasing salinity levels beneath Karnak. |
Rising Groundwater Issue | Periodic water level rise observed since the 1990s. Groundwater-Lowering Project (2007–2012) was conducted but water levels increased again in 2023. |
Climate Context | Details |
Summer Temperatures | Ranges from 39 to 44 °C (June–September), with very low humidity and almost no rainfall (1–2 mm). |
Winter Temperatures | Ranges from 23 to 35 °C (November–April) with cooler nights having temperature drops of 5 °C. Slight rainfall of up to 4.2 mm in May and 0.0 mm in August. |
Climate Projections (2100) | Temperature increases of 3–3.5 °C are expected. Rainfall decreases of −5% to 10% are expected. |
Wind Conditions | Winds blow from the east. Daily wind speed ranges from 1 m/s to 5 m/s. March 2024 wind speeds: max 7.19 m/s, min 1.02 m/s. |
Damage Type | Cause | Description | Effects on Structural Elements |
---|---|---|---|
Column Dismantling | Earthquakes and Flooding | Columns, especially at the bottom, were damaged due to lateral loads from seismic events and flooding pressures. | Structural instability, potential collapse, and dismantling of columns. Increased shear forces lead to low efficacy under lateral dynamic loads. |
Stone Block Fracturing | Earthquakes | Stone blocks were fractured due to seismic waves transmitting through the ground, leading to sharp cracks and breakage. | Out-of-plane movements caused fractures in blocks, separating them into pieces, with partial or total failure. Vertical seismic waves caused rapid up-and-down shaking, worsening the damage. |
Sharp Chippings | Earthquakes | Chipping with sharp edges formed during seismic events as a result of the forces applied on stone blocks. | Deformation of the stone surfaces. |
Rounded/Peeled Chippings | Weathering | Rounded edges caused by weathering actions. | Gradual degradation of stone elements over time. |
Cracking and Separation | Earthquakes and Ground Conditions | Cracking and separation occurred in stone blocks, forming fractures connected or unconnected across one or more blocks. | Stone blocks became separated and dislodged due to vertical seismic movement and unstable soil foundations. |
Out-of-Plane Displacement | Earthquakes | The earthquake forces caused sections of walls to shift out of the plane. | Walls sustained severe damage, with deformation, dislodging, and partial collapse. |
Soil Liquefaction | Earthquakes and High Groundwater Levels | Soil lost mechanical strength during earthquakes, causing liquefaction. | Structures sank, slid, or collapsed due to weak, liquefied soil. |
Embedded Stone Blocks | Earthquakes and Weak Soil | Stone blocks became embedded in the clay soil due to ground subsidence and liquefaction. | Displacement and misalignment of structural blocks within the foundation soil. |
Flooding Uplift and Displacement | Flooding | Hydrostatic forces during floods caused structural uplift and displacement. | Displacement, overturning, or uplift of entire sections of the temple during floods. |
Flood-Induced Deformation | Flooding | Water pressure caused deformation, particularly in low-lying parts of structures. | Structural elements at the bottom were physically and chemically altered due to water exposure. |
Block Overturning and Sliding | Earthquakes and Flooding | Stone blocks slid or overturned due to dynamic seismic forces or flood water. | Loss of structural integrity as blocks were displaced or completely overturned. |
Soil Shrinkage and Swelling | Fluctuating Water Table | Soil changes in response to water level fluctuations caused shrinkage and swelling. | Contributed to the settlement of the structures, weakening the foundations and worsening structural damage over time. |
Groundwater Table Fluctuations | Flooding | Increased water table and groundwater flow caused by floods or high surface water levels. | Damage due to changes in soil properties, such as settlement, swelling, and shrinkage. Structural foundations became unstable, leading to long-term deterioration. |
Type of Damage/Decay | Cause | Description/Effect |
---|---|---|
Thermal (Stress/Load) | Temperature fluctuations | Microstructure decay (mineral cracking and fracturing), volumetric changes in quartz leading to microcracks, sugaring, flaking, and disintegration. |
Mineralogical Decay | Composition of sandstone (quartz, albite, muscovite, etc.) | Sandstone with chlorite, biotite, dolomite, and kaolinite is less thermally stable. Clay minerals (e.g., kaolinite, illite) and phyllosilicates disintegrate at high temperatures. |
Wind (Erosion/Abrasion) | Wind-driven sand and particles | Surface erosion, distortion of inscriptions, total polishing, rounding, scouring, pitting, flaking, and weakening of cementing particles. |
Salt Weathering | Salts from contaminated water sources | Salt ions (NaCl, K2SO4) migrate through the soil and block the surface, leading to subefflorescence and efflorescence. Crystal growth in pores causes internal stresses and disintegration. |
Capillary Action (Salt Creep) | Water movement through pores | Damage is caused through transportation, accumulation, solute concentration, precipitation, crystal fractionation, and the creeping of salts causing internal and surface damage. |
Contaminated Water Infiltration | Water sources (urbanization, agriculture, canals, Nile, rain) | Waterborne contaminants lead to salt deposition, mechanical weakening, and breakage of the stone blocks. |
Clay Swelling and Exfoliation | Presence of swelling clays (clinochlore, kaolinite) | Swelling of clay minerals in sandstone leads to inner defects, causing flaking and exfoliation, especially in the presence of water. |
Month/Period | NDVI Range (Coverage) | Vegetation Coverage | NDVI Range (Density) | Vegetation Density |
---|---|---|---|---|
August 2023 (early) | Near 0 to 0.1 | Bare soil/sparse vegetation | 0.1–0.5 | Sparse vegetation |
August 2023 (late) | 0.1–0.5 | Sparse vegetation | 0.5–0.6 | Moderately dense vegetation |
September 2023 | 0.1–0.5 | Sparse vegetation | 0.5–0.6 | Increasingly dense vegetation |
January 2024 (late) | Near 0 to 0.2 | Bare soil/sparse vegetation | 0.1–0.3 | Sparse vegetation |
February 2024 (early) | 0.5–0.7 | Dense vegetation | 0.6 and up | Dense green vegetation |
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Fahmy, A.; Molina-Piernas, E.; Domínguez-Bella, S. Conservation Assessment of the Stone Blocks in the Northeast Corner of the Karnak Temples in Luxor, Egypt. Minerals 2024, 14, 890. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14090890
Fahmy A, Molina-Piernas E, Domínguez-Bella S. Conservation Assessment of the Stone Blocks in the Northeast Corner of the Karnak Temples in Luxor, Egypt. Minerals. 2024; 14(9):890. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14090890
Chicago/Turabian StyleFahmy, Abdelrhman, Eduardo Molina-Piernas, and Salvador Domínguez-Bella. 2024. "Conservation Assessment of the Stone Blocks in the Northeast Corner of the Karnak Temples in Luxor, Egypt" Minerals 14, no. 9: 890. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14090890