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Article

Investigating the Orogenic Evolution of the Wushan–Shangdan Ocean in the Qinling–Qilian Conjunction Zone: Insights from the Early Devonian Tailu Pluton

by
Hao Lin
1,
Zuochen Li
1,2,*,
Xianzhi Pei
1,2,
Ruibao Li
1,2,*,
Hai Zhou
1,2,
Meng Wang
3,
Shaowei Zhao
1,2,
Li Qin
1 and
Mao Wang
1
1
School of Earth Science and Resources, Chang’an University, Xi’an 710054, China
2
Xi’an Key Laboratory for Mineralization and Efficient Utilization of Critical Metals, Xi’an 710054, China
3
Geophysical Exploration Academy of China Metallurgical Geology Bureau, Baoding 071051, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Minerals 2024, 14(9), 910; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14090910
Submission received: 19 July 2024 / Revised: 2 September 2024 / Accepted: 3 September 2024 / Published: 5 September 2024
(This article belongs to the Section Mineral Geochemistry and Geochronology)
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Abstract

:
The main ocean–continent transformation stage of the Qinling and Qilian conjunction zone happened in the Early Paleozoic with the occurrence of a lot of subduction–collision–related magmatic rocks. However, there is still considerable controversy over the duration of the subduction–collision orogeny process of the Proto-Tethys Ocean, here termed as the Wushan–Shangdan Ocean. We provide geochronological, geochemical, and Lu-Hf isotopic data for typical Early Devonian igneous rocks there, named Tailu pluton. The Tailu pluton at 410 Ma comprised K-rich, calc-alkaline, metaluminous A-type granite with low Y/Nb ratios (0.85 to 1.35) and A/CNK values (0.90 to 1.01); with high SiO2 contents (65.44 to 74.46 wt%), Mg# values (39.2 to 50.7), and zircon saturation temperatures (745 to 846 °C); and with negative εHf (t) values (−8.0 to −1.9); therefore, they resulted from the partial melting of the ancient felsic lower crust accompanied by the incorporation of mantle-derived material during the intraplate magmatism process. Research on Tailu pluton has provided more sufficient evidence for the evolution process of the Qinling–Qilian conjunction zone in the Early Paleozoic, associated with evolution of the Wushan–Shangdan Ocean, the northern part of the Proto-Tethys Ocean.

1. Introduction

The Central China Orogenic Belt (CCOB), which includes the Kunlun, Qilian, Qinling, and Tongbai–Dabie Orogenic Belts from west to east, retains many significant records of the Proto-Tethys geotectonic zone [1,2,3,4]. As important parts of the CCOB, the North Qinling Orogenic Belt (NQOB) and the North Qilian Orogenic Belt (NQLOB), separated by the Xinyang–Yuanlong Fault, have many similarities and commonalities with some differences and unique features. The Qinling–Qilian conjunction zone (QQCZ), is situated in the central/northern section of the CCOB (Figure 1) [5,6,7]. Extensive petrology, geochronology, and geochemistry studies have been carried out in the QQCZ by previous researchers, and new research results on the area have suggested that the Early Paleozoic was the main ocean–continent transformation stage of the QQCZ [1,2,3,4,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23].
Existing research suggests that the formation of the Wushan–Shangdan Suture (WSS) was the consequence of the collision between the Yangtze Block (YB) and the NQOB during the Caledonian [20]. Nevertheless, substantial debate persists regarding the age of the closure of the WSO. Some experts believe that this significant geological event occurred in the Early Devonian period [1,2,3,22]. In contrast, another view suggests that the closure transpired during the Early Silurian [10,20,24]. In the QQCZ, numerous Caledonian intermediates to basic plutons and granite intrusions had scattered outcrops in the Liushuigou-Shuangchangxia and Baihua–Liqiao regions, and these geological features provide valuable information for the study of the amalgamation mechanisms between the NQOB and the NQLOB [25] (Figure 1b). Thus, studies on these key rock records during the subduction–collision process will deepen our understanding of the continental dynamics of the CCOB [11,26,27,28,29].
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Figure 1. (a) Simplified geological map of the division of tectonic units in Qinling–Qilian conjunction zone [3]; (b) Simplified geological map of the Qinling–Qilian conjunction zone showing the distribution of Early Paleozoic granite [5,6,7,10,25,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37].
Figure 1. (a) Simplified geological map of the division of tectonic units in Qinling–Qilian conjunction zone [3]; (b) Simplified geological map of the Qinling–Qilian conjunction zone showing the distribution of Early Paleozoic granite [5,6,7,10,25,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37].
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Research on the granite magmatism of different ages and origins in the Wushan–Shangdan Ocean (WSO) can effectively reveal and differentiate the subduction, collision, and exhumation periods [2]. This lays a significant foundation for the collision tectonics of the Early Paleozoic WSO within the QQCZ. In order to clarify the late tectonic progression of the Proto–Tethys Ocean in this region, this paper focuses on the Tailu pluton (TP) located in the QQCZ by combining new data and recent regional geological research findings. We conduct petrology, geochemistry, zircon U–Pb geochronology, and zircon Lu–Hf isotope studies to determine the origin and chronological age of the igneous rock to trace the melt generation zone and formation’s tectonic background. Combined with the results of previous studies, the WSO orogeny in the QQCZ is shown to have ended in the Early Devonian and entered the intraplate magmatism process at about 410 Ma. This indicates the Early Paleozoic tectonic evolution of the northern branch of the Proto–Tethys Ocean (Wushan–Shangdan Ocean).

2. Geological Setting

The QQCZ is situated in the central/northern section of the CCOB, which is confined by the Tethys Ocean, Paleo-Asian Ocean, and Pacific geotectonic zones. This region evolved in the Early Paleozoic as an active continental margin characterized by a “trench–arc–basin” framework [10,11,38,39]. Geographically, it comprised the western section of the NQOB to the south and the eastern terminus of the NQLOB, located to the north. The Xinyang–Yuanlong (Baoji–Tianshui) ductile strike–slip fault currently demarcates the boundary between these two regions [1,3,10] (Figure 1a). The Late Cambrian N-MORB-type basic volcanic rocks marked by ophiolite are outcropped in the Guanzizhen region. These rocks extend westward to the Wushan–Yuanyangzhen region and eastward to the Liqiao area, offering a material record of the WSO ancient oceanic crust [8,11,26,40]. In the Early Palaeozoic, the WSO underwent northward subduction, forming an island-arc–fore-arc basin, such as metamorphic sedimentary–volcanic rocks in the Liziyuan Group [41,42]. With the continuation of subduction in the WSO, the Middle to Late Ordovician period witnessed the genesis of the metavolcanic Caotangou Group with the associated volcaniclastic and mildly metamorphosed clastic rocks, which are emblematic of an island-arc setting [10]. Concurrently, intermediate–basic igneous complexes such as Liushuigou and Baihua were formed [10], alongside subduction-type plutons including Honghuapu tonalite, Sanchahe quartz diorite, Tangzang quartz diorite, and Yangjiazhuang quartz diorite [28,30,31,43,44]. Following the subduction of the oceanic crust, the geodynamic setting began to evolve towards arc–continental or continental–continental collision orogeny. This led to the development of Caledonian collision-type plutons such as the Dangchuan granite and entered a post-collisional background extensional environment in the Late Silurian–Early Devonian [27,29,31,32,33,34].
The strata exposed in the studied region span the Paleoproterozoic to Early Paleozoic eras [10]. The Precambrian crystalline basement is constituted by the Paleoproterozoic Qinling Group, which comprises marble–calc-silicate assemblages, aluminous gneisses, and felsic gneisses [10,45]. Geochronological data indicate that the layers formed between 2267–1987 Ma [1]. The HP-UHP metamorphic rocks exposed within the Qinling Group represent the subduction and deep subduction of the continental crust during the Early Paleozoic [46,47]. The Kuanping, Liziyuan, and Caotangou Groups comprised metamorphic volcanic–sedimentary sequences (Figure 1b). Previous studies about the Kuanping Group primarily focused on the central and eastern sectors of the NQOB, which consist mainly of carbonate rocks, mafic volcanic, and meta-clastic rocks [48,49,50]. The study area consists of gneiss, schist, and a little amphibolite, which are distributed as remnant rocks within the granite, altered by the intrusion of subsequent granitic activity [10,51]. The Paleozoic Liziyuan Group consisted of carbonate sedimentary facies and metamorphic clastic rocks, as well as metamorphic basaltic andesite, metamorphic basalt, and metamorphic andesite volcanic facies, with the volcanic components displaying characteristic island-arc or fore–arc affinities [41]. The Ordovician Caotangou Group was further stratified into the Longwanggou Formation, Zhangjiazhuang Formation, and Honghuapu Formation, from the top to base [10,52,53]. The volcanic rocks within this formation exhibited island–arc affinities [54,55,56,57]. These Paleozoic volcanic–sedimentary sequences provided valuable perspectives for studying the Early Paleozoic geodynamic processes in the QQCZ [2,10,58].

3. Field Geology and Petrography

The TP is primarily distributed in the Wangjiamiao–Putaoyuan–Tailu–Huoyanshan area in the QQCZ (Figure 1b and Figure 2), and the northern boundary is controlled by the Xinyang–Yuanlong Fault. It intrudes the Ordovician Caotangou Group metasediments in the west and south. The northern part is in a fault interface with Quaternary loess sediments. To the east are the Wuchai and the Qinlingdabao granite deposits. The lithology is mainly coarse–medium syenogranite with a pale-red color, followed by pale-red monzogranite (Figure 3a,b). The locations of the zircon dating U-Pb sample (syenogranite TS19039-1) is 34°14′04.05′′ N, 106°25′09.71′′ E. We also collected 23 fresh whole–rock geochemical samples which were free of corrosion. These samples were obtained around Wangjiamiao–Qipanshi–Tailu, in the northern region of the pluton.
The syenogranite is medial-to-coarse in texture, partly consistent with pseudoporphyritic granite, and has a blocky structure. The syenogranite comprises orthoclase (50% to 60%), plagioclase (15% to 20%), quartz (15% to 20%), and biotite (5% to 10%). The accessory minerals are mainly zircon, apatite, sphene, ilmenite, and monazite (Figure 3c). The monzogranite exhibits a medium–coarse grained texture with a massive construction, with myrmekite occasionally appearing locally (Figure 3d). The monzogranite samples consist of orthoclase (35% to 45%), plagioclase (25% to 30%), quartz (25% to 30%), biotite (2% to 5%), and a few other accessory minerals (apatite and sphene).

4. Analytical Methods

4.1. Zircon U–Pb Age

For geochronological studies, sample crushing and zircon extraction were completed by Xi’an Ruishi Geological Technology Co., Ltd., Xi’an, China. Then, the zircon samples and related CL images were prepared by Beijing Gaonianlinghang Geo Analysis Co., Ltd., Beijing, China. The U–Pb isotopic analysis of zircon was performed on a German Jena PQMS ICP-MS instrument equipped with the NWR193 laser ablation system. Standard sample 91500 and control sample GJ–1 were used for data processing [59]. The ICPMSDataCal 10.9 software (China University of Geosciences) was used to perform data manipulation [60]. By utilizing Isoplot software (ver. 3.75), we computed weighted mean ages and produced concordia plots [61]. For a detailed explanation of the analytical procedures and instrumental parameters, please refer to Li et al. [62].

4.2. Whole–Rock Major and Trace Elements

The testing of major, rare earth, and trace elements in the whole-rock samples were undertaken at the Key Laboratory of Western China’s Mineral Resources and Geological Engineering of the Ministry of Education, Chang’an University. The major elements were determined by X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF). This analysis adhered to the national standard GB/T 14,506.28-1993, which allowed us to achieve analytical accuracy from 2% to 3%. To ascertain the loss on ignition (LOI), the weight of samples was recorded after heating in an oven at 1000 °C for 90 min. Rare earth and trace elements were analyzed by Thermo-X7 Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometer (ICP-MS).

4.3. Zircon Lu–Hf Isotope

Lu–Hf isotope dating of zircon was carried out by Langfang Fengzeyuan Rock Mine Detection Technology Co., Ltd., Langfang, China. The selected zircon Lu–Hf isotope analysis site corresponded to the in–situ area of the zircon U-Pb dating location. The zircon ablation process was performed using a Resolution SE 193 nm excimer laser ablation system from ASI (American Applied Inc., Berkeley, CA, USA) with a spot beam diameter of about 38 μm, an energy density ranging from 7 to 8 J/cm2, and an operational frequency of 10 Hz. This is added to MC-ICPMS (Thermofisher company, Waltham, MA, USA) as the analysed system. The ablated zircon was transported to the Neptune Plus with high-purity Helium as the carrier gas. The optimal detection conditions were temperature of 18~22 °C and relative humidity under 65%. For detailed information on the experimental principles, methodologies, and procedures, it is recommended to refer to Wu et al. [63] and Geng et al. [64].

5. Results

5.1. Zircon Feature and U–Pb Dating

A representative sample of Tailu syenogranite was selected for zircon LA-ICP MS dating and a trace element analysis. The results of these analyses can be seen in Tables S1 and S2, and the zircon CL image and corresponding U-Pb concordance plots are presented in Figure 4.
The zircons (TS19039-1) of Tailu syenogranite range in length from 50 to 220 μm, with aspect ratios varying between one to one and four to one. Most grains exhibit well–developed oscillatory zoning (Figure 4a). In the 25 analysis spots, 23 spots exhibit concordant U-Pb ages, as well as high U (183 to 968 ppm) and Th (258 to 1224 ppm) concentrations, with Th/U ratios ranging from 0.71 to 2.58, consistent with typical magmatic zircons (Figure 5). The 206Pb/238U ages of the 23 spots range from 402 to 414 Ma (Figure 4b), with a weighted mean age of 410.5 ± 2.3 Ma (MSWD = 0.24, n = 23).

5.2. Major and Trace Element Geochemistry

The results of the whole-rock major and trace element analyses are presented in Table S3. The Tailu monzogranite and syenogranite have similar geochemistry characteristics. The analyzed samples exhibited high SiO2 concentrations of 65.44 to 74.46 wt%, Al2O3 concentrations of 12.50 to 16.57 wt%, Fe2O3T concentrations of 1.43 to 4.77 wt%, MgO concentrations of 0.49 to 1.50 wt%, and Mg# values ranging from 39.2 to 50.7. The samples from the TP are located in the subalkaline granite field on the TAS diagram (Figure 6a). They are enriched in K2O (K2O = 3.65 to 7.01 wt%; Na2O/K2O = 0.46 to 1.18; mean 0.76), and their total alkali (K2O + Na2O) content is 7.36 to 10.64 wt%. They have low Rittmann index (σ) values of 1.72 to 4.92 (with a mean of 2.87). The TP has a calc-alkaline affinity. Most samples displayed high-K-content calc-alkaline series and mugearite series (Figure 6b). They are metaluminous to weakly peraluminous with A/CNK ratios of 0.90 to 1.01 (Figure 6c).
The REE contents of these samples ranged from 168.77 to 542.08 ppm, showing fractionation patterns of LREE enrichment and HREE depletion, with (La/Yb) N = 10.73 to 28.34, (La/Sm) N = 4.30 to 8.79, and (Gd/Yb) N = 1.74 to 2.53. They show negative Eu anomalies with Eu/Eu* = 0.52 to 0.72 (Figure 7a). They are enriched in Rb, K, and Pb, while showing depletions in Nb, Zr, Ta, Ce, Ti, and P (Figure 7b).

5.3. Zircon Lu-Hf Isotope Dating

The results of zircon Lu-Hf isotope analyses are presented in Table S4. The values (176Lu/177Hf) are below the threshold of 0.002, suggesting that only a minimal amount of radiogenic Hf has accumulated since the zircons’ crystallization [63,69,70]. Therefore, the initial 176Hf/177Hf ratio can also be used to represent the initial 176Hf/177Hf ratio of the zircons [65]. Fifteen Lu-Hf spots from the TP (TS19039-1) have negative εHf (t) values ranging from −8.0 to −1.9, corresponding to two-stage model ages between 1521 and 1896 Ma.

6. Discussion

6.1. Types of Rock Genesis

A typing scheme for I– and S–type granite was proposed in which granites were related to source rock compositions [71]. Subsequently, the term “A–type granite” was defined [72]. The formation of I-, S-, and A-type granites is not arbitrary, but is closely linked to the tectonic environment and geodynamic history of the region [73,74]. The Rb content of the TP (75.86 to 211.54 ppm) is lower than that of highly fractional granite (Rb = 270 ppm) [75], indicating that it is not a highly fractional granite (Figure 8a,b).
It also has high Zr + Nb + Ce + Y contents (287 to 729 ppm; mean: 514 ppm) and Zr contents (181 to 419 ppm; mean: 296 ppm), which are similar to A-type granite (>350 ppm and >250 ppm, respectively) but different from I- and S-type granite [73]. The 10,000 Ga/Al ratio of TP, ranging from 2.09 to 2.84 with an average of 2.51, is similar to that of A-type granites (>2.6) and notably exceeds that of I-type granites (2.10) as well as S-type granites (2.28) [73]. The ratios of Fe2O3T/MgO, ranging from 2.26 to 3.62, similarly align with the iron-rich characteristics typical of A-type granites [73].
We used zircon saturation temperatures (TZr = 12,900/[2.95 + 0.85M + ln (496,000/Zrmelt)], M = (Na + K + 2Ca)/(Al × Si)) to deduce the melting temperatures of TP as 745 to 846 °C (with a mean of 817 °C) [76], which are significantly higher than those of S-type (764 °C) and I–type granite (781 °C) [75]. In the Ce vs. 10,000Ga/Al diagram (Figure 8c), most samples fall within the A–type granite field, and they exhibit an evolutionary trend towards A–type granites in the Zr vs. 10,000Ga/Al diagram (Figure 8d) [73,77]. These characteristics suggest that the TP should be classified as A-type granite rather than I– or S–type granite.

6.2. Petrogenesis

Compared to the mantle-derived magma (Nb/La = 0.93 to 1.32, Rb/Nb = 0.24 to 0.89) [65], the TP exhibited lower Nb/La ratios (0.22 to 0.64) and higher Rb/Nb ratios (1.84 to 18.46). Additionally, the Cr content of the TP ranged from 2.57 to 22.08 ppm, which is significantly lower than that of primitive basaltic magma (Cr = 500 to 600 ppm) [78]. This led to a decrease in the ratios of Nb/U (from 2.51 to 15.75 with an average of 9.88) and Ce/Pb (from 2.58 to 12.17 with an average value of 6.12) compared to those of the primitive mantle (30 and 9, respectively), which were akin to the continental crust (6.2 and 4, respectively) [79]. The TP has high SiO2 contents (65.44 to 74.46 wt%), and granitic magma with high SiO2 contents is rarely directly derived from mantle–derived magmas [80].
The TP exhibits significant positive anomalies in Rb, K, Th, and U, while Ba, Sr, Ti, Nb, Ta, and P show negative anomalies, indicating that they underwent certain degrees of fractional crystallization during their evolutionary process. Negative Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.52 to 0.72), as well as depleted Sr (mean 338 ppm) and Ba (mean 1266 ppm) (Figure 7), indicate that there is a small amount of plagioclase residue or mild fractional crystallization in the source area. The depletions of Ti and Nb may be the result of the fractional crystallization of Ti-Fe oxides, while the depletions of P are the result of the fractional crystallization of apatite [81,82]. The samples exhibit a strong fractionation between LREE and HREE (LREE/HREE = 10.43–20.51, Figure 7a), with La/Yb ratios ranging from 15.9 to 42.0 and (La/Yb) N values ranging from 10.73 to 28.34. The Sr/Y ratios are relatively high (5.86–22.67 with a mean of 10.38), indicating the presence of garnet in the residual phase of the source region [80]. The TP shows lower Rb/Sr ratios (0.14 to 0.87, with a mean of 0.49) and Ti/Zr ratios (6.74 to 13.43) and high K2O contents (3.65 to 7.01 wt%), reflecting its crustal source characteristics (Rb/Sr > 0.5; Ti/Zr > 20) [78]. Moreover, the Zr/Hf values of the TP are similar to those of the continental crust (40.8 and 36.7, respectively) [83]. Therefore, it is assumed that the material in the TP source area originates from the crust (Figure 9a [84]). A-Type granites may originate from the high-temperature melting of metasedimentary rocks [85]. In experiments, granites formed by the partial melting of greywacke as the source rock typically have a CaO/Na2O ratio greater than 0.3, while those formed by the partial melting of pelitic rocks have a CaO/Na2O ratio less than 0.3 [86]. The CaO/Na2O ratios of the TP ranged from 0.37 to 0.77, which suggested that the TP was formed by the partial melting of meta-greywackes (Figure 9b [87]).
Experimental studies have shown that melts generated from felsic crustal materials under relatively low-pressure conditions generally possess metaluminous to weakly peraluminous and Fe-rich characteristics, while those formed under relatively high-pressure conditions are typically strongly peraluminous [89]. The TP has slightly metaluminous to weakly peraluminous (A/CNK values of 0.90 to 1.01) and Fe-rich (FeOT/(MgO + FeOT) values of 0.67–0.77) characteristics, indicating that it formed under conditions of relatively low pressure. In general, a positive value of εHf (t) can be interpreted as the source rock being from the juvenile crust or depleted mantle, whereas a negative value of εHf (t) indicates that the source rock is made of ancient crustal components [63,90]. The εHf (t) values of the TP range from −8.0 to −1.9. The diagrams of the distribution of εHf (t) vs. age (Figure 10) indicated that the TP magma originated from the partial melting of ancient crustal materials in the Meso–Neoproterozoic [91,92]. Also, the Th/La ratio of the TP ranges from 0.23 to 0.89 (with a mean of 0.44), and the Th/Nb ratio is between 0.46 and 3.97 (with a mean of 1.23), which are higher than the mantle mean values of 0.125 and 0.12 [93], suggesting that the source region may consist of mature crustal materials. The Mg# value can serve as a basis for determining whether mantle-derived material was added to crustal source magma [94]. The crustal melting shows Mg# < 40, and the degree of partial melting did not change the Mg# value, but the addition of mantle-derived material results in Mg# > 40 [95,96,97]. The TP has high Mg# values from 39.2 to 50.7 (with a mean of 42.5 > 40), indicating that the TP was not formed by the melting of pure crustal material as well as the possible mixing of mantle–derived materials. In the Mg# vs. SiO2 diagram (Figure 9c), the position of the sample outside the area of the pure crustal partial melt suggests that there was a mixture of mantle–derived materials present in the source region (Figure 9d). However, the MgO content was low, ranging from 0.49 to 1.50, indicating that the contribution of mantle–derived material was restricted. In summary, this paper proposed that the TP was derived from the partial melting of the ancient felsic lower crust with the mixing of mantle–derived materials and underwent certain degrees of fractional crystallization in a low-pressure, high-temperature setting.

6.3. Tectonic Background

Previous research has shown that the WSO generated in Late Cambrian and its closure was due to continent–continent or continent–arc collision orogeny [10]. The age of the TP corresponds to the Early Devonian (410 Ma), indicating that the TP was not formed in the subduction process. Previously obtained data have shown that most of the post-collision granite intrusions can be dated to the Early Devonian, ranging from 420 Ma to 410 Ma [24,28,31,34,35,36]. Therefore, we proposed the TP was formed post-collision or later. A-type granites of the TP are enriched in Nb, Y, and Rb (Figure 11a,b, Table S3), and Pearce et al. [98] categorized them as within-plate granites. General geodynamic scenarios suggest that the post-orogenic extension or intracontinental rifting led to the formation of within-plate granites [99]. Also, the A-type granite is classified as anorogenic (A1 or AA) and post-orogenic (A2 or PA) [73,74,100,101]. Different A-type granites have different Y/Nb values (A1 < 1.20, A2 > 1.20) [74]. The TP has low Y/Nb ratios (0.85 to 1.35 with a mean of 1.13 < 1.2). As shown in the diagrams (Figure 11c,d), all the samples are plotted into the A1-type granite area, which indicated an anorogenic extension setting and the end of the orogenic process.
The TP was formed at a lower depth (Figure 10b) but at a higher temperature (with a mean of 817 °C). In the context of extensional tectonics, the pressure reduction is conducive to the differential melting of rocks in the source area. Simultaneously, the tensile thinning of the lithosphere and changes in the nature of the lithospheric mantle inevitably led to the upwelling of high-temperature asthenosphere at depth, lithospheric material, and the underplating of mantle magmas. The ancient felsic lower crust underwent partial melting with the mixing of mantle-derived materials and certain degrees of fractional crystallization in a low-pressure, high-temperature setting, culminating in the formation of the Tailu A1-type granite (Figure 12).

6.4. Tectonic Significance

Previous authors have conducted extensive research on the Qinling and Qilian [48,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,114,115,116,117,118]. It is well known that the NCB and the YB were separated by the WSS in the QQCZ [1,10,119,120]. Furthermore, the Guanzizhen and Wushan ophiolites were WSO lithosphere remnants with U–Pb ages between 534 and 489 Ma. They exhibited N–MORB and E–MORB features, respectively [8,10,11,40,121,122,123]. With the northward subduction of the WSO from 472 to 451 Ma, the metamorphic–volcanic–sedimentary rock system of the Liziyuan Group was generated in an island-arc or fore-arc basin background characterized by island-arc features, and the volcanic–sedimentary rock system of the Caotangou Group was generated in an island-arc background characterized by subduction [28,41,51,54]. At the same time or later, a number of intermediate–basic igneous rocks were formed in the island-arc context, including the Liushuigou gabbro (471 Ma), the Baihua intermediate–basic igneous complex (449.7 Ma), the Hualingou meta-gabbro (440 Ma), and the Yuanyangzhen meta-gabbroic amphibolite (456 Ma) in the Wushan area [10,24,123,124]. Also, the intermediate–basic volcanic rocks of the Zhangjiazhuang Formation (456 Ma), the acidic tuffs of the Longwanggou Formation (457 Ma), Honghuapu tonalite (451 Ma), Tangzang quartz diorite (455 Ma), Sanchahe quartz diorite (459 Ma), and Yangjiazhuang and Honghuapu K–rich, high-Ba-Sr-content granitoids (439 to 438 Ma) were documented from the Early Paleozoic subduction of the WSO [27,31,43,44,53,55,125]. Through previous studies, we can determine the age for the northward subduction of the WSO to be 472 to 438 Ma.
Subsequently, the collision between the YB and NQOB closed the WSO and thickened the crust. Additionally, collisional–related magma intrusions were intense, and the Caledonian plutons were developed [10]. The Dangchuan granite, the Xiongshanggou granite, and the Jiguangya granite were typical syn–collision granite rocks of the QQCZ formed from 438 to 432 Ma [31,32,33,34,37]. The muscovite granite and two–mica granite of Zhangjiazhuang, along with the Na-rich, high-Ba-Sr-content granite of Tangzang, were formed in a slab break–off context from 430 to 423 Ma [27,28]. However, previous studies have indicated that a slab break-off generally occurs shortly after continental collision [126,127]. During the Late Silurian (433 to 424 Ma), the QQCZ underwent metamorphism of its granulite facies and anatexis [128,129,130], which may have occurred in the context of the thickening of the lower crustal setting during the continent–continent collision orogeny stage [131,132]. The presence of these igneous rocks suggests that the WSO closed before 438 Ma, and the YB and the NQOB underwent a continent–continent collision stage between 438 and 423 Ma.
Continued continental compression will cause continental crust to shorten and thicken, which will result in the formation of high-density lithospheric root (eclogitic root) in the underlying lithospheric mantle and protrusion into the asthenosphere [133]. The characteristic of delamination was the sinking of the eclogitic root, followed by widespread asthenosphere upwelling and crust expansion [134,135]. Given that the slab break-off occurred before 423 Ma at the QQCZ [28], the delamination of the thickened crust might have caused an extension during the Late Silurian–Early Devonian. The Huoyanshan granite (415 Ma) originated from the high-temperature melting of the heterogeneous continental crust in an extensional environment [31]. Leijiayuan quartz diorite (415 Ma), Beixinggou black mica granite (412 Ma), and Yanwan dolomite granite (409 Ma) were generated in a post–collision geodynamic setting [28]. The Tailu A1–type granite (410 Ma in this paper) was formed in an orogenic extension setting, which was consistent with previous results within these tolerances. The collision-related granite provides information on the orogenic processes between the NQOB and the NCB and limited the tectonic evolution of the Early Paleozoic ancient oceans and continents of the QQCZ.
In summary, this paper proposes that the Wushan–Shangdan Ocean was in a closed state during the Early Silurian. Following oceanic closure, there was a sequence of syn-collisional orogenies in the extrusive setting and post-collisional orogenies within the extensional context. The orogenic activity of the Qinling–Qilian conjunction zone concluded at ca. 410 Ma, which subsequently transitioned into a stable intraplate tectonic environment.

7. Conclusions

(1)
The zircon U-Pb age of the Tailu pluton is determined to be 410 Ma. The εHf(t) values range from −8.0 to −1.9 with two-stage model ages varying between 1896 Ma and 1521 Ma. These data suggest that the Tailu pluton orogenic magma was derived from the partial melting of ancient basement rocks and formed during the late Caledonian extensional period.
(2)
The whole-rock Zr saturation thermometer indicates an average temperature of 817 °C for TP. Its geochemical attributes align closely with those of A-type granite, which is characterized by metaluminous and high-K-content calc-alkaline series. This characterization implies that the Tailu pluton originated from dehydration and the partial melting of the felsic of ancient lower crustal materials. This process reflects the differentiated evolution of crustal materials during the anorogenic phase in the Devonian period of the Qinling–Qilian conjunction zone.
(3)
The Qinling–Qilian conjunction zone previously underwent a subduction–collision–post-collision orogenic process associated with the Wushan–Shangdan Ocean. The emplacement of the Tailu A1-type granite marked the end of orogenic activity by 410 Ma, followed by a transition to an intraplate tectonic phase within an extensional setting. This transition reflects the tectonic evolution of the Wushan–Shangdan Ocean basin orogeny in the northern segment of the Proto-Tethys Ocean.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/min14090910/s1. Table S1: Zircon LA–ICP–MS U–Pb data of the Tailu pluton at the Qinling–Qilian conjunction zone; Table S2: Zircon trace element data of the Tailu pluton at the Qinling–Qilian conjunction zone; Table S3: Whole-rock major and trace element data of the Tailu pluton at the Qinling–Qilian conjunction zone; Table S4: Zircon Hf isotopic composition of the Tailu pluton at the Qinling–Qilian conjunction zone.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, H.L., Z.L. and X.P.; methodology, H.L., Z.L., X.P., R.L., H.Z. and S.Z.; software, H.L. and Z.L.; validation, H.L. and Z.L.; formal analysis, H.L., Z.L., R.L., H.Z., S.Z., L.Q. and M.W. (Mao Wang); investigation, H.L., Z.L., X.P., L.Q. and M.W. (Meng Wang); resources, Z.L. and X.P.; data curation, H.L.; writing—original draft preparation, H.L., Z.L., X.P. and M.W. (Mao Wang); writing—review and editing, H.L., Z.L. and X.P.; visualization, H.L., Z.L. and R.L.; supervision, Z.L. and X.P.; project administration, Z.L. and X.P.; funding acquisition, Z.L. and X.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 41872235, 42172236, and 41872234), the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (Grant Nos. 300102270202, 300103183081, 300104282717, and 300102274808), Double First-Class University Construction Special Project of Shaanxi (Grant No. 300111240014), and the Youth Innovation Team of Shaanxi Universities.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary Material.

Acknowledgments

We would like to extend our thanks to the chief editor and the two anonymous reviewers for their constructive reviews, which greatly improved our manuscript. We wish to acknowledge Y.W., F.G., X.W., Y.W., and others for their help during the fieldwork.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 2. Geological map showing the Tailu pluton in the Qinling–Qilian conjunction zone [6,7].
Figure 2. Geological map showing the Tailu pluton in the Qinling–Qilian conjunction zone [6,7].
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Figure 3. Representative field photographs and photomicrographs of the Tailu pluton in the Qinling–Qilian conjunction zone. (a) Syenogranite outcrop; (b) Monzogranite outcrop; (c) Microscopic features of syenogranite; (d) Microscopic features of monzogranite and myrmekite. Minerals abbreviation: Or—Orthoclase; Pl—Plagioclase; Bt—Biotite; Qz—Quartz; Spn—Sphene.
Figure 3. Representative field photographs and photomicrographs of the Tailu pluton in the Qinling–Qilian conjunction zone. (a) Syenogranite outcrop; (b) Monzogranite outcrop; (c) Microscopic features of syenogranite; (d) Microscopic features of monzogranite and myrmekite. Minerals abbreviation: Or—Orthoclase; Pl—Plagioclase; Bt—Biotite; Qz—Quartz; Spn—Sphene.
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Figure 4. Cathodoluminescence (CL) image of zircons and the zircon U-Pb age diagrams of the Tailu pluton in the Qinling–Qilian conjunction zone. (a) CL image of zircons and U-Pb concordia diagrams of TS19039-1 sample; (b) 206Pb/238U weighted mean ages of TS19039-1 sample.
Figure 4. Cathodoluminescence (CL) image of zircons and the zircon U-Pb age diagrams of the Tailu pluton in the Qinling–Qilian conjunction zone. (a) CL image of zircons and U-Pb concordia diagrams of TS19039-1 sample; (b) 206Pb/238U weighted mean ages of TS19039-1 sample.
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Figure 5. Zircons Th/U vs. U–Pb age (a) and chondrite-normalized REE patterns; (b) diagrams of the Tailu pluton in the Qinling–Qilian conjunction zone. The chondrite and primitive mantle values were taken from Sun and McDonough [65].
Figure 5. Zircons Th/U vs. U–Pb age (a) and chondrite-normalized REE patterns; (b) diagrams of the Tailu pluton in the Qinling–Qilian conjunction zone. The chondrite and primitive mantle values were taken from Sun and McDonough [65].
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Figure 6. (a) TAS diagram [66]; (b) K2O vs. SiO2 diagram [67]; (c) A/NK (molar Al2O3/[Na2O + K2O]) vs. A/CNK (molar Al2O3/[CaO + Na2O + K2O]) diagram [68].
Figure 6. (a) TAS diagram [66]; (b) K2O vs. SiO2 diagram [67]; (c) A/NK (molar Al2O3/[Na2O + K2O]) vs. A/CNK (molar Al2O3/[CaO + Na2O + K2O]) diagram [68].
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Figure 7. Chondrite-normalized REE patterns (a) and primitive mantle normalized trace element spider diagrams (b) of the Tailu pluton in the Qinling–Qilian Conjunction Zone. The chondrite and primitive mantle values were taken from Sun and McDonough [65]. Huoyanshan granite [31] and Yanwan granite [28] were located in the Qinling–Qilian conjunction zone.
Figure 7. Chondrite-normalized REE patterns (a) and primitive mantle normalized trace element spider diagrams (b) of the Tailu pluton in the Qinling–Qilian Conjunction Zone. The chondrite and primitive mantle values were taken from Sun and McDonough [65]. Huoyanshan granite [31] and Yanwan granite [28] were located in the Qinling–Qilian conjunction zone.
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Figure 8. Granite type discrimination diagram of Tailu pluton in the Qinling–Qilian conjunction zone: (a) (Zr + Nb + Ce + Y) vs. (K2O + Na2O)/CaO; (b) (Zr + Nb + Ce + Y) vs. FeOT/MgO; (c) Ce vs. 10,000Ga/Al; (d) Zr vs. 10,000Ga/Al. FG = fractionated felsic granites; OGT = unfractionated I- and S-type granites; A = A-type granite [73].
Figure 8. Granite type discrimination diagram of Tailu pluton in the Qinling–Qilian conjunction zone: (a) (Zr + Nb + Ce + Y) vs. (K2O + Na2O)/CaO; (b) (Zr + Nb + Ce + Y) vs. FeOT/MgO; (c) Ce vs. 10,000Ga/Al; (d) Zr vs. 10,000Ga/Al. FG = fractionated felsic granites; OGT = unfractionated I- and S-type granites; A = A-type granite [73].
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Figure 9. The source region diagrams of the Tailu pluton in the Qinling–Qilian conjunction zone: (a) Sr vs. CaO [84]; (b) A/FM vs. C/FM [87]; (c) Mg# vs. SiO2 [88]; (d) Fe2O3T vs. MgO. AFC: assimilation and fractional crystallization.
Figure 9. The source region diagrams of the Tailu pluton in the Qinling–Qilian conjunction zone: (a) Sr vs. CaO [84]; (b) A/FM vs. C/FM [87]; (c) Mg# vs. SiO2 [88]; (d) Fe2O3T vs. MgO. AFC: assimilation and fractional crystallization.
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Figure 10. Zircon Lu-Hf Isotope diagrams of the Tailu pluton in the Qinling–Qilian conjunction zone. (a) εHf(t) vs. Age (Ma) diagrams; (b) εHf(t) vs. Age (Ma) diagram (Ma). Huoyanshan granite [32].
Figure 10. Zircon Lu-Hf Isotope diagrams of the Tailu pluton in the Qinling–Qilian conjunction zone. (a) εHf(t) vs. Age (Ma) diagrams; (b) εHf(t) vs. Age (Ma) diagram (Ma). Huoyanshan granite [32].
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Figure 11. The tectonic setting diagrams of the Tailu pluton in the Qinling–Qilian conjunction zone: (a) Nb vs. Y [98]; (b) Rb vs. (Y + Nb) [98]; (c) Ce/Nb vs. Y/Nb [74]; (d) Nb vs. Y versus Ce [74]. Syn-collision granites [28,31,33,44]. Post-collision granite [28]; Anorogenic granites [28,31]. All the granites were from the Qinling–Qilian conjunction zone.
Figure 11. The tectonic setting diagrams of the Tailu pluton in the Qinling–Qilian conjunction zone: (a) Nb vs. Y [98]; (b) Rb vs. (Y + Nb) [98]; (c) Ce/Nb vs. Y/Nb [74]; (d) Nb vs. Y versus Ce [74]. Syn-collision granites [28,31,33,44]. Post-collision granite [28]; Anorogenic granites [28,31]. All the granites were from the Qinling–Qilian conjunction zone.
Minerals 14 00910 g011
Minerals 14 00910 g012
Figure 12. Schematics of geodynamic and petrogenetic model illustrating the evolution of the Qinling–Qilian conjunction zone ca. 410 Ma and the generation of the Tailu pluton during Early Devonian.
Figure 12. Schematics of geodynamic and petrogenetic model illustrating the evolution of the Qinling–Qilian conjunction zone ca. 410 Ma and the generation of the Tailu pluton during Early Devonian.
Minerals 14 00910 g012
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Lin, H.; Li, Z.; Pei, X.; Li, R.; Zhou, H.; Wang, M.; Zhao, S.; Qin, L.; Wang, M. Investigating the Orogenic Evolution of the Wushan–Shangdan Ocean in the Qinling–Qilian Conjunction Zone: Insights from the Early Devonian Tailu Pluton. Minerals 2024, 14, 910. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14090910

AMA Style

Lin H, Li Z, Pei X, Li R, Zhou H, Wang M, Zhao S, Qin L, Wang M. Investigating the Orogenic Evolution of the Wushan–Shangdan Ocean in the Qinling–Qilian Conjunction Zone: Insights from the Early Devonian Tailu Pluton. Minerals. 2024; 14(9):910. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14090910

Chicago/Turabian Style

Lin, Hao, Zuochen Li, Xianzhi Pei, Ruibao Li, Hai Zhou, Meng Wang, Shaowei Zhao, Li Qin, and Mao Wang. 2024. "Investigating the Orogenic Evolution of the Wushan–Shangdan Ocean in the Qinling–Qilian Conjunction Zone: Insights from the Early Devonian Tailu Pluton" Minerals 14, no. 9: 910. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14090910

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