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Article

Geochemistry and Geochronology of the Late Permian Linxi Formation in the Songliao Basin, China: Tectonic Implications for the Paleo-Asian Ocean

by
Xin Huang
1,2,
Haihua Zhang
1,2,3,*,
Liang Qiu
4,*,
Gongjian Li
4,5,
Yujin Zhang
1,2,
Wei Chen
1,2,
Shuwang Chen
1,2 and
Yuejuan Zheng
1,2
1
Shenyang Center of China Geological Survey, Shenyang 110034, China
2
Observation and Reseach Station of Mesozoic Stratigraphic System in Western Liaoning, MNR, Shenyang 110034, China
3
CAS Key Laboratory of Crust-Mantle Materials and Environments, School of Earth and Space Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China
4
State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, School of Earth Sciences and Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China
5
Journal Center, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Minerals 2025, 15(8), 784; https://doi.org/10.3390/min15080784
Submission received: 16 June 2025 / Revised: 17 July 2025 / Accepted: 22 July 2025 / Published: 25 July 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 7th National Youth Geological Congress)
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Abstract

The Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB) represents a crucial area for understanding the tectonic evolution of the Paleo-Asian Ocean and surrounding orogenic systems. This study investigates the petrology, geochronology, and geochemistry of volcanic and clastic rocks from Well HFD3 in the northern Songliao Basin, which provides key insights into the tectonic development of this region. Zircon U–Pb dating of tuff samples from the Linxi Formation provides an accurate age of 251.1 ± 1.1 Ma, corresponding to the late Permian. Geochemical analyses show that the clastic rocks are rich in SiO2 (63.5%) and Al2O3 (13.7%), with lower K2O/Na2O ratios (0.01–1.55), suggesting low compositional maturity. Additionally, the trace element data reveal enrichment in light rare earth elements (LREEs) and depletion in Nb, Sr, and Ta, with a negative Eu anomaly, which indicates a felsic volcanic arc origin. The Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA) values (53.2–65.8) reflect weak chemical weathering, consistent with cold and dry paleo-climatic conditions. These findings suggest that the Linxi Formation clastic rocks are derived from felsic volcanic arcs in an active continental margin environment, linked to the subduction of the Paleo-Asian Ocean slab. The sedimentary conditions reflect a gradual transition from brackish to freshwater environments, corresponding with the final stages of subduction or the onset of orogeny.

1. Introduction

The Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB) is the world’s largest accretionary orogen, spanning from the Ural Mountains in the west to Northeast China [1,2,3,4,5,6]. It formed over about 600 million years due to the convergence of multiple oceanic basins and multi-directional subduction, primarily from the subduction of the Paleo-Asian Ocean (PAO) [3,4,5,6,7]. The Songliao Basin, located in the eastern CAOB, is geologically significant as it has been shaped by complex tectonic processes, including the Paleozoic PAO subduction, the Mesozoic Mongolian–Okhotsk Ocean, and the Circum-Pacific tectonic influence (Figure 1, [1,6,8,9]).
The Late Paleozoic closure of the PAO remains debated, with several researchers identifying the Xar Morun–Changchun–Yanji belt as the suture zone [12,13,14,15,16], while others suggest the Hegenshan–Heihe fault belt, which represents an important lithospheric suture zone located in the eastern segment of the CAOB [17,18,19]. The timing of amalgamation ranges from the Middle Devonian to the Late Permian to Early Triassic [16,20,21,22].
While much research on the PAO’s tectonic evolution has focused on magmatic rocks, less attention has been given to sedimentary strata, which record the provenance’s weathering and denudation processes. The Songliao Basin, part of the Xilinhot–Songliao block, is crucial for understanding the PAO’s closure. The Upper Permian Linxi Formation, of particular interest due to its sedimentary age, tectonic setting, and depositional environment, has been studied for its paleontological characteristics [23,24,25,26,27]. Recent interest has grown in its shale, which holds potential for shale gas resources [28].
The Permian was a time of dramatic biological and geological events, culminating in the Permian–Triassic extinction [29]. The Linxi Formation’s study provides key insights into the geodynamic evolution of the PAO. Despite this, obtaining deep samples from the Songliao Basin has been challenging due to extensive coverage and limited exposure of bedrock. Additionally, research on the provenance characteristics, tectonic setting, and sedimentary environment of the Linxi Formation remains incomplete.
This study addresses these gaps by providing precise U–Pb zircon dating and detailed geochemical analysis of volcanic and clastic rocks from Well HFD3. By establishing the age of the Linxi Formation, the study will examine its sedimentary characteristics, provenance, and tectonic background, contributing to the understanding of the PAO’s evolution and regional geological processes.

2. Geological Setting

The Songliao Basin is a critical region within the Central Asian Orogenic Belt (CAOB), located at the junction of the Siberian and North China plates. Positioned between these two major tectonic plates, the basin has been shaped by a complex history of subduction, accretion, and eventual continental collision. This geological history is a direct result of the convergence of the Siberian Plate to the south and the North China Plate to the north, leading to the closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean (PAO) and the subsequent formation of the CAOB [3,4,5]. The basin has undergone multiple magmatic events since the late Paleozoic. During a Permian–Triassic tectonic event, mantle-derived material ascended and formed magmatic rocks. From the late Early Cretaceous to the Late Cretaceous, the crust underwent thinning in response to widespread extensional faulting, resulting in the formation of lacustrine basin. The basin development peaked during deposition of the early Late Cretaceous Nenjiang and Qingshankou formations, which unconformably overlie the Linxi Formation. Concurrently, the area evolved into an intracontinental depression [11,30].
The Songliao Basin’s stratigraphy reflects this tectonic evolution, with the Linxi Formation representing a key unit in understanding the region’s Late Paleozoic history. This formation is particularly important due to its position in the tectonic sequence, its role in the closing stages of PAO subduction, and its relationship with the collision of microblocks, such as the Xilinhot–Songliao block, with the North China Plate [9,16]. The Linxi Formation contains both volcanic and clastic sediments that were deposited during a period of active tectonism, with volcanic rocks reflecting the subduction-related magmatism and clastic rocks providing records of sedimentary processes influenced by the tectonic environment (Figure 2).
The geochemistry of the Linxi Formation’s volcanic and clastic rocks suggests a setting influenced by subduction and early continental collision. The presence of felsic volcanic rocks in the formation points to an active continental margin, likely a continental island arc environment, where volcanic activity was sustained by the northward subduction of the Paleo-Asian Ocean beneath the Songliao–Xilinhot block [11,27,30]. These findings are further supported by the geochemical characteristics, including the enrichment in light rare earth elements (LREEs) and negative europium anomalies, which are commonly associated with arc-related magmatism [11,30,32].
Tectonically, the region experienced significant changes during the Late Permian. The closure of the PAO resulted in the uplift and deformation of the Songliao Basin, with the final stages of subduction contributing to the magmatic and tectonic processes recorded in the Linxi Formation. The shifting depositional environments, from marine to continental, reflect these tectonic dynamics, with the sedimentary record offering critical insights into the final stages of oceanic subduction and the onset of continental collision [11,30].

3. Sampling and Analytical Methods

3.1. Sampling

In this study, one isotopic dating sample and 18 geochemical samples were analyzed. The isotopic dating sample consists of gray tuff, while the geochemical samples include dark gray siltstone and grayish black silty mudstone from the Linxi Formation (Figure 2b). The gray tuff is composed mainly of tuff and interstitial material, exhibiting a tuffaceous texture and massive structure. The tuff is largely made up of crystal and rock debris, with dominant crystal fragments such as plagioclase, biotite, quartz, and opaque minerals. Plagioclase is mostly present as anhedral grains and some hypidiomorphic tabular, with grain sizes typically ranging from 0.1 to 0.3 mm. Partial sericitization and kaolinization are observed in plagioclase minerals. Quartz is present in xenomorphic granular form (grain size: 0.1–0.5 mm), with some exhibiting wavy extinction. Biotite is mostly flaky and chloritized, with a particle size of less than 0.2 mm. Finer microcrystalline felsic minerals such as feldspar and quartz account for around 20% of the composition, with opaque minerals mostly being granular, measuring less than 0.4 mm, likely containing iron (Figure 3).

3.2. Analytical Methods

Zircon U–Pb dating was performed on the gray tuff sample. Zircon crystals were isolated using magnetic separation and heavy liquid methods at the Langfang Chengxin Geological Service Company. Selected zircons were examined under both transmitted and reflected light, and only those without significant fractures or inclusions were handpicked. The zircons were embedded in epoxy resin, polished, and imaged using cathodoluminescence (CL) to reveal internal zoning patterns. The CL imaging was carried out using a Garton Mono CL3+ spectrometer (AMETEK, Berwyn, PA, USA) attached to a Quanta 200F scanning electron microscope (FEI company, Hillsboro, OR, USA) at Peking University. Zircon U–Pb geochronology was conducted using an Agilent 7500a ICP-MS (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA, USA) coupled with a UP-193 solid-state laser (wavelength: 193 nm) (New Wave™ Research, Fremont, CA, USA). The laser energy density was set at 8.5 J/cm2, with a repetition frequency of 10 Hz and a beam diameter of 36 µm. Zircon 91,500 served as the external standard for age calibration, while NIST 610 glass was used for instrumental calibration. Secondary standards TEMORA [33] and Qinghu [34] were used to ensure the accuracy of age determinations, with common Pb corrections applied following Andersen’s protocol [35]. The results were plotted on a Wetherill Concordia diagram (how?) and weighted mean ages and their statistical parameters calculated.
The major oxide components of the bulk rocks were analyzed using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) (Malvern Panalytical, Worcestershire, UK) spectrometry on fused glass samples, with an analytical precision better than ±0.02%. The primary oxides determined included SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, CaO, Na2O, and MgO. The composition of trace elements, including rare earth elements (REEs), was determined using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) with a PerkinElmer SCIEX ELAN 6000 system (PerkinElmer, Waltham, MA, USA). For trace element analysis, approximately 50 mg of each powdered sample was dissolved in a high-pressure Teflon vessel containing a mixture of HNO3 and HF, and the solution was heated at 190 °C for 48 h [36]. Rhodium (Rh) was used as an internal standard to correct for instrumental drift, while the international standards GBPG-1 [37] and OU-6 [38] were used for quality control. The precision for all measured elements was better than ±0.02%.

4. Results

4.1. Isotopic Ages

Zircon U–Pb dating was performed on a tuff sample (2287.8TWS) collected from Well HFD3 in the Songliao Basin. The analysis was conducted on 80 zircon grains, with the cathodoluminescence (CL) images revealing that most zircons are idiomorphic and retain their magmatic crystal form. These zircons are predominantly long to short columnar, with grain sizes ranging from 90 to 120 µm, and a length–width ratio of approximately 2:1. The Th/U ratio varies between 0.36 and 1.96, with an average of 0.70, indicating a magmatic origin (Figure 4, [39]).
The zircon U–Pb dating results (Table 1) show that all data points align along the Concordia line, indicating high accuracy. After removing younger, older, or discordant ages, the weighted average age of the sample is (251.1 ± 1.1) Ma (MSWD = 0.63, n = 72), confirming the Late Permian age of the tuff (Figure 5). This age is consistent with the Late Permian age of the Linxi Formation [11,30].

4.2. Whole-Rock Geochemistry

4.2.1. Major Elements

The clastic rocks from the Linxi Formation in Well HFD3 exhibit a wide range of SiO2 content, ranging from 54.5 wt.% to 73.8 wt.% (average 63.5 wt.%). The Al2O3 content ranges from 6.1 wt.% to 18.1 wt.% (average 13.7 wt.%), indicating a significant presence of clay minerals. Other major oxides show varied content, with Fe2O3T ranging from 2.1 wt.% to 7.7 wt.%, and Na2O from 0.87 wt.% to 8.02 wt.%. The K2O/Na2O ratio varies from 0.01 to 1.55, and the Al2O3/(CaO + Na2O) ratio ranges from 0.38 to 2.21 (Figure 6). These variations suggest low compositional maturity, with a dominant influence from less stable minerals, such as feldspar, indicating that the samples have not undergone significant alteration. Most major oxides exhibit significant correlations with Al2O3. Positive correlations occur between Al2O3 and TiO2, Fe2O3, Na2O, and K2O, while a negative correlation exists with SiO2 (Figure 6). This indicates increasing mineralogical maturity with decreasing proportions of unstable components (e.g., feldspar). The higher Fe2O3T and MgO content (2.87%–11.77%, average 6.92%) indicates the presence of more mafic minerals, which are characteristic of volcanic rocks from active tectonic settings, likely an island arc related to orogenic belts [40].

4.2.2. Trace Elements

The trace element composition of the rocks from the Linxi Formation exhibits enrichment in large-ion lithophile elements (LILEs) such as Rb, K, and Th, and high field strength elements (HFSEs) like Nb, Zr, and Ti. The concentrations of Sr, Rb, Cs and Pb range from 193.4 to 460.1 µg/g, 2.41 to 58.78 µg/g, 0.35 to 3.61 µg/g, and 9.05 to 28.2 µg/g, respectively. The concentration of U and Ba is similar to the Post-Archean Australian Shale (PAAS), while other elements are notably deficient [41,42]. The correlation between Al2O3 and Cr suggests that clay minerals exhibit a strong capacity for Cr enrichment through processes such as adsorption and ion exchange, and may control the distribution of these elements (Figure 6, [43]).
The total rare earth elements (ΣREE) range from 54.1 to 134.7 µg/g (average 91.2 µg/g), with a distribution pattern consistent with the PAAS. The REE patterns show a moderate enrichment of light rare earth elements (LREEs), with a La/Yb ratio ranging from 4.86 to 14.01. The heavy REE (HREE) distribution is relatively flat, with a weak negative Eu anomaly (δEu = 0.59–1.12, average 0.81) and a weak negative Ce anomaly (δCe = 0.67–1.01). The LREE/HREE ratio ranges from 5.5 to 9.4, with an average of 6.9 (Figure 7). These geochemical characteristics are consistent with a provenance from a continental island arc, which is typical of active continental margin environments.

5. Discussion

5.1. Geochronological and Stratigraphic Framework of the Linxi Formation

The zircon U–Pb dating from Well HFD3 in the Songliao Basin provides a crucial geochronological framework for the Linxi Formation. The obtained age of 251.1 ± 1.1 Ma (Late Permian) is comparable with prior studies, confirming the Late Permian age of the formation and offering more precise data compared to previous estimates based on paleontological and detrital zircon data (Table 2). The consistency of the zircon age data with stratigraphic and paleontological evidence from adjacent regions further corroborates the conclusion that the Linxi Formation was deposited in the Late Permian, during a period of significant tectonic and environmental change.
Prior to this study, the age of the Linxi Formation had been subject to some uncertainty, with estimates ranging from the Late Permian to Early Triassic [11,22,30,47]. However, the precision of the U–Pb zircon dating now provides a more reliable and definitive age for the formation, contributing to a more accurate understanding of the stratigraphic sequence and its relationship to surrounding geological units. This chronological constraint also allows for improved correlation with other regional formations, providing insights into the timing of significant geological events such as the closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean and the onset of continental collision. However, this is just a zircon age from a tuff layer in a sedimentary sequence, which has to be extrapolated with caution to the whole lithologic column and the whole area of the basin.
The high precision of the U–Pb zircon age measurement is further supported by the excellent concordance of the data points along the Concordia line, with a low Mean Square of Weighted Deviates (MSWD) value of 0.63, indicating minimal error and high reliability in terms of the age determination. This precise dating also aids in refining the tectonic timeline of the region, suggesting that the Linxi Formation marks a critical period during the final stages of the subduction and collision processes in the Central Asian Orogenic Belt.

5.2. Geochemical Fingerprint, Provenance, Paleoclimate, and Sedimentary Environment

5.2.1. Geochemical Fingerprint

The immobile elements, which include rare earth elements (REEs), certain transition metals (such as Cr, Co, and Ni), and high field strength elements (HFSEs) like Nb, Ta, Zr, Hf, Sc, Y, Th, and Ti, are generally resistant to alteration under normal geological conditions [41,50,51]. However, their concentrations can be influenced by changes in pressure, temperature, or fluid composition, such as shifts from H2O-rich to CO2-rich fluids or SiO2-rich partial melts, or by exceptionally high fluid fluxes (e.g., Mcculloch and Gamble [52]). In our study, the samples exhibit elevated Zr contents (Figure 8). Based on the findings of Long et al. [53], we attribute this observation to zircon accumulation, indicating that the HFSE contents remain unaltered. Furthermore, the samples cluster within narrow fields on the Rb–Zr diagram (Figure 8), which supports two key conclusions: (1) the concentrations of these elements have not undergone significant modification, and (2) the samples share a common provenance.
The A–CN–K ternary diagram provides a valuable framework for assessing the weathering intensity, metasomatic alteration, and source rock characteristics [54,55]. Under ideal conditions, weathering will be distributed along the direction parallel to A–K or A–CN [56], while metasomatism shifts the actual weathering line away from the natural weathering line, and the greater the deviation, the stronger the metasomatism. In the A–CN–K ternary diagram, the sample distribution exhibits a concentrated pattern, with the majority aligned along the A–CN axis in a near-parallel orientation to the A–CN boundary (Figure 9a). This spatial distribution indicates that the clastic rocks’ geochemical signatures have been largely unaffected by diagenetic or metamorphic processes. The observed pattern further implies that weathering represents the dominant control on the rocks’ compositional variations, making these samples particularly suitable for provenance analysis and paleo-weathering studies.
According to Polat and Hofmann [50], samples exhibiting δCe values within the range of 0.9 to 1.1 are considered to have undergone minimal alteration. In our study, the δCe values of most samples fall between 0.67 and 1.01, with a mean value of 0.89 (Table 3), indicating that the clastic rock compositions have not experienced significant modification. Furthermore, the highly consistent patterns observed in the spider diagrams (Figure 7) suggest that the samples have largely preserved their original high field strength element (HFSE) and rare earth element (REE) signatures from the time of diagenesis. Consequently, the immobile element concentrations in these samples can be reliably utilized to trace their provenance and infer the tectonic setting in which they formed.

5.2.2. Provenance

The geochemistry of the Linxi Formation, derived from the analysis of major and trace elements, provides essential information regarding the provenance and tectonic setting of the sedimentary rocks. The clastic rocks of the Linxi Formation exhibit significant variability in their major oxide contents, with SiO2 values ranging from 54.5% to 73.8% and an average value of 63.5%. The relatively high Al2O3 content (average 13.70%) coupled with a moderate to low SiO2/Al2O3 ratio (average 5.51) suggests that the sedimentary rocks are immature and derived from a proximal source [58,59]. These geochemical signatures indicate that the clastic sediments were primarily deposited in an environment characterized by rapid sedimentation, with limited chemical weathering or alteration.
The geochemical data from the clastic rocks further point to a felsic source region, likely related to volcanic arc settings. The high concentrations of Al2O3 and the relatively low K2O/Na2O ratios are consistent with felsic materials, and the Index of Compositional Variability (ICV) values ranging from 0.92 to 1.45, with a mean of 1.14 (Figure 9b, Table 3), suggest that the clastic rocks originate from immature sediments in a tectonically active environment [40,60,61]. These findings are in agreement with the hypothesis that the source of the Linxi Formation clasts was largely unaffected by redeposition and that the sediments were deposited near their source area in a dynamic tectonic setting. This interpretation is further supported by the TiO2–Ni diagram (Figure 10a), where the majority of the samples plot within the magmatic acid rock field and are distinctly distant from the mature sedimentary rock domain, reinforcing the conclusion that the sediments were derived from immature source areas. In the Co/Th–La/Sc diagram (Figure 10b), the clastic rocks have a relatively stable ratio, further indicating that the source area is predominantly composed of felsic materials.
The nature of the source rock plays a crucial role in determining the chemical composition of sedimentary rocks [64]. Studies have shown that intermediate-acid rocks have high Al2O3/TiO2 values and low TiO2/Zr values [62,65,66]. The Al2O3/TiO2 ratios of samples are notably high, ranging from 19.28 to 28.99, significantly exceeding those of mafic igneous rocks (typically around 14). Most of these values fall within the range characteristic of felsic igneous rocks (18–26; [59,66]). In the K2O–Rb diagram (Figure 11a), the majority of the sample are tightly clustered and plot within the intermediate-acid field, suggesting that the source rocks are predominantly of intermediate to acidic composition. In the La/Th–Hf diagram, the majority of the samples plot within or near the acidic arc source field (Figure 11b). Similarly, in the A–CN–K diagram (Figure 9a), the samples align along the granite trend, providing further evidence that the source area is dominated by granitic materials. Additionally, magmatic and volcanic rocks associated with plate subduction and collision during the Late Paleozoic may represent one of the potential sources for the clastic rocks. These findings suggest that the clastic rocks in the study area of the Late Permian Linxi Formation were primarily derived from continental arc materials.
Trace element data further support this interpretation, showing typical signatures for arc-derived sediments, including high concentrations of Rb, K, and Sr, along with distinct depletions in Nb, Ta, and Ti. These features are indicative of a volcanic arc setting, with the source materials likely originating from the erosion of felsic volcanic rocks associated with subduction-related magmatism [41,67,68,69,70,71,72]. The rare earth element (REE) patterns observed in the Linxi Formation are also consistent with this model, showing moderate enrichment in light rare earth elements (LREE) and a relatively flat heavy rare earth element (HREE) profile, which is characteristic of felsic rocks from active continental margins.

5.2.3. Paleoclimate

The Linxi Formation’s geochemical and isotopic characteristics provide valuable insights into the tectonic evolution and paleoclimate during the Late Permian. The provenance and geochemical data suggest that the formation was deposited in a continental island arc environment, which was actively influenced by the subduction of the Paleo-Asian Ocean beneath the Songliao–Xilinhot block. The weak chemical weathering indicated by the Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA) values, which range from 53.2 to 65.8 (mean = 60.9) (Figure 9a, Table 3), supports a cold and dry climate during the deposition of the Linxi Formation [57,73,74], consistent with global climatic conditions during the Late Permian [29].
The clastic rocks of the Linxi Formation exhibit relatively low Rb/Sr ratios, varying between 0.008 and 0.17, with a mean value of 0.09. These values are significantly lower than those of post-Archean Australian average shale (about 0.8) [41]. The low Rb/Sr ratios observed in the clastic rocks, along with the elevated Fe2O3T and MgO contents, further support the interpretation of an arid, cold paleoclimate, similar to other Late Permian formations in Northeast China [75]. These geochemical indicators suggest that the region experienced a period of limited weathering under cold and dry conditions, possibly associated with continental aridity and the gradual closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean.

5.2.4. Sedimentary Environment

The geochemical signatures of rare earth elements are commonly utilized to infer the tectonic setting or source characteristics of both modern and ancient sedimentary deposits. Murry et al. [76] demonstrated that Ce anomalies are closely linked to the tectonic environment of sedimentary basins. Using the North American shale composite as the standard reference value, there is an obvious Ce negative anomaly (0.29 × 10−6) near the spreading ridge within 400 km from the top of the oceanic ridge, and there is a moderate Ce negative anomaly (0.55 × 10−6) in the oceanic basin. The Ce anomaly in the continental margin disappears or is positive (0.9 × 10−6~1.30 × 10−6), while the Ce anomaly of the Linxi Formation clastic rock samples is between 0.67 × 10−6~1.01 × 10−6, which is a very weak negative anomaly, indicating that the sedimentary environment is a continental margin environment.
Based on the marine affinity of MgO and the terrestrial affinity of Al2O3 in clastic rocks, the magnesium–aluminum ratio B (B = 100 × (MgO/Al2O3)) can be calculated to assess the salinity of the depositional environment [77]. As the depositional environment transitions from freshwater to marine conditions, the B value exhibits a progressive increase corresponding to the rise in water salinity. In freshwater sedimentary environments, B values are typically less than 1; in transitional continental–marine settings, B ranges between 1 and 10; in marine environments, B values span from 10 to 500; and in epicontinental seas or lagoonal carbonate depositional systems, B values exceed 500. Most of the B values for the Linxi Formation clastic rocks range from 6 to 50 (6.5 to 24.0, with an average of 15.6), indicating that they mainly belong to the continental and marine transitional sedimentary environment. The sedimentary environment of the Linxi Formation is interpreted as being primarily marine–continental transitional, reflecting the tectonic transition from oceanic subduction to continental collision, as evidenced by the gradual shift in sediment characteristics. In summary, the geochemical signatures of the Linxi Formation indicate a source region dominated by felsic volcanic rocks, with limited weathering and a tectonically active environment. The intensity of chemical weathering is relatively low, and the sedimentary environment is generally cold and dry. These findings provide important insights into the tectonic processes that were at play during the Late Permian, specifically the subduction of the Paleo-Asian Ocean and the associated volcanic activity that contributed to the sedimentary deposits.

5.3. Tectonic Implications

Elements such as Th, Cr, Co, Sc, Zr, and La remain stable in sedimentary environments and are effective indicators for determining the characteristics of the source area and tectonic setting [78]. On the Th–Sc–Zr/10 and La–Th–Sc tectonic discrimination diagrams (Figure 12), all data points plot within the continental island arc field, suggesting that the provenance is primarily influenced by an active continental margin tectonic environment. This further implies that the sediments were likely deposited in fore-arc or back-arc basins adjacent to a continental arc.
Based on comprehensive petrological, chronological, and geochemical analyses, the Linxi Formation in Well HFD3 of the Songliao Basin has been determined to date back to the late Late Permian. The geochemical characteristics indicate that the formation developed in an active continental margin tectonic setting adjacent to a continental island arc. The source material for the sedimentary rocks is predominantly derived from felsic rocks, with the sedimentary provenance reflecting primary cycle sedimentation in an active tectonic environment characterized by a rapid sedimentation rate. The chemical weathering intensity is weak, and the sedimentary environment is generally cold and dry. The analysis suggests that during this period, the Paleo-Asian Ocean slab underwent continuous northward subduction beneath the Songliao–Xilinhot block. The dehydration of the subducting slab triggered partial melting processes within the lithospheric mantle, generating magma that ascended, intruded, and erupted onto the surface, ultimately forming volcanic island arcs and mountainous regions. The sustained subduction of the plate caused significant mantle uplift, rapid mountain formation, and subsequent erosion. The magmatic and volcanic rocks from the volcanic island arc served as the primary source for the Permian Linxi Formation. This period marked either the final stages of the PAO slab subduction or the initial phase of orogeny, leading to the development of a relatively elevated island arc mountain range. The intense erosion of the source area and the rapid deposition of clastic materials resulted in the formation of the Linxi Formation’s clastic deposits (Figure 13). Li et al. [25] proposed that the Linxi Formation primarily represents a continental sedimentary system, with an initial depositional phase characterized by a marine–continental transitional environment. Zhang et al. [26] identified marine fossils in the upper strata of the Linxi Formation within the study area. These findings collectively demonstrate that the Linxi Formation experienced both marine and marine–continental transitional sedimentary environments during its depositional history. The subsequent transition from transitional facies to a fully continental environment is attributed to tectonic processes including subduction, collision, and uplift of the continental crust.
The tectonic setting during the Late Permian was marked by the continued northward subduction of the Paleo-Asian Ocean slab beneath the continent, which facilitated the generation of magma and the formation of volcanic arcs. The rapid sedimentation observed in the Linxi Formation likely reflects the proximity of the source area to the subduction zone, with erosion and rapid accumulation of clastic sediments derived from volcanic rocks. The continued tectonic processes during this period, including plate subduction, volcanic activity, and crustal thickening, contributed to the development of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt.
The results of this study provide significant contributions to the understanding of the Late Permian tectonic evolution of the Songliao Basin and the Central Asian Orogenic Belt. The precise age determination of the Linxi Formation, combined with geochemical and isotopic evidence, allows for a refined understanding of the timing and processes associated with the final stages of the Paleo-Asian Ocean subduction and the initiation of continental collision. The geochemical characteristics suggest that the sedimentary rocks of the Linxi Formation were derived from felsic volcanic rocks, likely related to volcanic island arcs in an active continental margin setting.
The data presented here also contribute to the ongoing debate regarding the precise timing of the closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean and the tectonic processes that shaped the region. The Linxi Formation provides a clear stratigraphic record of the tectonic transition from subduction to orogeny, offering new insights into the geodynamic processes that governed the closure of the Paleo-Asian Ocean. Further studies, particularly those focused on detailed stratigraphy and additional geochemical proxies, will continue to refine our understanding of the tectonic history of the region and its role in the formation of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt.

6. Conclusions

This study integrates petrological, geochemical, and isotopic data to refine our understanding of the Linxi Formation in the Songliao Basin, leading to the following conclusions:
(1) Precise Age Determination: The volcanic rocks of the Linxi Formation have an isotopic age of 251.1 ± 1.1 Ma, the first accurate age reported for this formation in the region. This places the Linxi Formation in the Late Permian, supported by paleontological and detrital zircon age data.
(2) Sedimentary Characteristics: The clastic rocks from Well HFD3 exhibit low maturity and high unstable component content, indicating rapid deposition near the source with weak post-depositional alteration. The provenance experienced weak chemical weathering, consistent with a cold, dry paleoclimate.
(3) Source Area and Tectonics: The source material is primarily from felsic volcanic arcs associated with Late Paleozoic subduction. The region experienced subduction of the Paleo-Asian oceanic slab and collision with the North China Craton, with sedimentation occurring in a marine–continental transitional environment, reflecting the final stages of subduction or the early stages of orogeny.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, X.H., H.Z., L.Q., G.L. and Y.Z. (Yujin Zhang); Methodology, X.H.; Software, X.H., H.Z. and W.C.; Validation, H.Z. and G.L.; Formal analysis, L.Q. and W.C.; Investigation, H.Z., L.Q., W.C., S.C. and Y.Z. (Yuejuan Zheng); Resources, G.L., Y.Z. (Yujin Zhang), S.C. and Y.Z. (Yuejuan Zheng); Data curation, X.H. and L.Q.; Writing–original draft, X.H. and H.Z.; Writing–review & editing, H.Z. and G.L.; Visualization, S.C. and Y.Z. (Yuejuan Zheng); Supervision, H.Z., L.Q. and Y.Z. (Yuejuan Zheng); Project administration, Y.Z. (Yujin Zhang); Funding acquisition, H.Z. and Y.Z. (Yujin Zhang). All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the China Geological Survey Project (Grant DD202402079, DD20240207902), Director’s Fund from Shenyang Center of China (SJ202306), Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities “Research Project on Ideological and Political Work” (Grant No. 9-1-2024-04), Discipline Development and Research Foundation of China University of Geosciences, Beijing (Grant No. 2024XK218), and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (42172024, 92479206).

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are openly available in Mendeley Data, V1, doi:10.17632/dpd96597vh.1.

Acknowledgments

We thank WenChun Ge for the assistance in istope analysis. We appreciate the constructive comments from two anonymous reviewers.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Geological map of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt indicating the location of the study area (adapted from [10,11]).
Figure 1. Geological map of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt indicating the location of the study area (adapted from [10,11]).
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Figure 2. (a) Geological map illustrating the Songliao Basin and adjacent regions. (b) Comprehensive histogram depicting the stratigraphy of Borehole HFD3 (adapted from [11,31]).
Figure 2. (a) Geological map illustrating the Songliao Basin and adjacent regions. (b) Comprehensive histogram depicting the stratigraphy of Borehole HFD3 (adapted from [11,31]).
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Figure 3. (a) Photographs of tuff cores and (b) photomicrograph of a thin section of the tuff (2287.8TWS), and (c) core photographs of the clastic rocks. Pl refers to plagioclase, Bt refers to Biotite, and Qz refers to Quartz. The position marked by the red rectangle is tuff.
Figure 3. (a) Photographs of tuff cores and (b) photomicrograph of a thin section of the tuff (2287.8TWS), and (c) core photographs of the clastic rocks. Pl refers to plagioclase, Bt refers to Biotite, and Qz refers to Quartz. The position marked by the red rectangle is tuff.
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Figure 4. CL imaging and U–Pb calculated ages for zircons from isotopic dating samples.
Figure 4. CL imaging and U–Pb calculated ages for zircons from isotopic dating samples.
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Figure 5. (a) Zircon U–Pb Concordia diagram of the tuff. (b) Weighted mean age diagram for the tuff.
Figure 5. (a) Zircon U–Pb Concordia diagram of the tuff. (b) Weighted mean age diagram for the tuff.
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Figure 6. Major and selected trace element vs. Al2O3 variation diagrams and HREE vs. Zr variation. (a) SiO2 vs. Al2O3, (b) TiO2 vs. Al2O3, (c) Fe2O3T vs. Al2O3, (d) K2O vs. Al2O3, (e) Na2O vs. Al2O3, (f) Cr vs. Al2O3, (g) Rb vs. Al2O3, and (h) HREE vs. Al2O3.
Figure 6. Major and selected trace element vs. Al2O3 variation diagrams and HREE vs. Zr variation. (a) SiO2 vs. Al2O3, (b) TiO2 vs. Al2O3, (c) Fe2O3T vs. Al2O3, (d) K2O vs. Al2O3, (e) Na2O vs. Al2O3, (f) Cr vs. Al2O3, (g) Rb vs. Al2O3, and (h) HREE vs. Al2O3.
Minerals 15 00784 g006
Minerals 15 00784 g007
Figure 7. Trace element geochemistry of Linxi Formation clastic rocks, Songliao Basin: (a) primitive mantle-normalized diagram; (b) chondrite-normalized REE patterns. The primitive mantle and chondrite normalization values used in this study are those of Boynton [44] and Sun and McDonough [45], respectively.
Figure 7. Trace element geochemistry of Linxi Formation clastic rocks, Songliao Basin: (a) primitive mantle-normalized diagram; (b) chondrite-normalized REE patterns. The primitive mantle and chondrite normalization values used in this study are those of Boynton [44] and Sun and McDonough [45], respectively.
Minerals 15 00784 g007
Minerals 15 00784 g008
Figure 8. Bivariate plots of TiO2, Th, Rb, and Yb/La against Zr for samples from the Linxi Formation. (a) TiO2 versus Zr, (b) Yb/La versus Zr, (c) Rb versus Zr, and (d) Th versus Zr.
Figure 8. Bivariate plots of TiO2, Th, Rb, and Yb/La against Zr for samples from the Linxi Formation. (a) TiO2 versus Zr, (b) Yb/La versus Zr, (c) Rb versus Zr, and (d) Th versus Zr.
Minerals 15 00784 g008
Minerals 15 00784 g009
Figure 9. Geochemical characterization of the Linxi Formation clastic rocks. (a) illustrates composition on an A–CN–K diagram (following [53,54]), while (b) displays chemical weathering patterns on a CIV versus ICV plot (based on [40,53,57]). The shaded region indicates the typical CIA range for Phanerozoic shales. CIA values of 50 and 100 represent unweathered primary igneous rocks and intensely weathered materials, respectively [54].
Figure 9. Geochemical characterization of the Linxi Formation clastic rocks. (a) illustrates composition on an A–CN–K diagram (following [53,54]), while (b) displays chemical weathering patterns on a CIV versus ICV plot (based on [40,53,57]). The shaded region indicates the typical CIA range for Phanerozoic shales. CIA values of 50 and 100 represent unweathered primary igneous rocks and intensely weathered materials, respectively [54].
Minerals 15 00784 g009
Minerals 15 00784 g010
Figure 10. Source rock discrimination diagrams for clastic rocks. (a) TiO2–Ni plot, based on Floyd et al. [62]; (b) Co/Th–La/Sc plot, following Floyd and Leveridge [63].
Figure 10. Source rock discrimination diagrams for clastic rocks. (a) TiO2–Ni plot, based on Floyd et al. [62]; (b) Co/Th–La/Sc plot, following Floyd and Leveridge [63].
Minerals 15 00784 g010
Minerals 15 00784 g011
Figure 11. Provenance discrimination diagrams for the clastic rocks of the Linxi Formation: (a) K2O–Rb plot, after Floyd [62]; (b) La/Th–Hf plot, following Floyd and Leveridge [63].
Figure 11. Provenance discrimination diagrams for the clastic rocks of the Linxi Formation: (a) K2O–Rb plot, after Floyd [62]; (b) La/Th–Hf plot, following Floyd and Leveridge [63].
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Minerals 15 00784 g012
Figure 12. Provenance and tectonic setting discrimination diagrams for the Linxi Formation clastic rocks. (a) La–Th–Sc diagram, (b) Th–Zr/10–Sc diagram (modified from [78,79]).
Figure 12. Provenance and tectonic setting discrimination diagrams for the Linxi Formation clastic rocks. (a) La–Th–Sc diagram, (b) Th–Zr/10–Sc diagram (modified from [78,79]).
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Minerals 15 00784 g013
Figure 13. Diagram depicting the source areas of clastic sediments, depositional processes of the Linxi Formation, and associated tectonic development during the Late Permian period. (a) The formation process of the Linxi Formation and (b) the provenance analysis of its clastic rocks (modified from [30]).
Figure 13. Diagram depicting the source areas of clastic sediments, depositional processes of the Linxi Formation, and associated tectonic development during the Late Permian period. (a) The formation process of the Linxi Formation and (b) the provenance analysis of its clastic rocks (modified from [30]).
Minerals 15 00784 g013
Table 1. The U–Pb isotope composition of zircon of clastic rock from the Linxi Formation.
Table 1. The U–Pb isotope composition of zircon of clastic rock from the Linxi Formation.
Test PointContent/×10−6Th/UIsotope RatioAge/Ma
PbThU207Pb/206Pb±1σ207Pb/235U±1σ206Pb/238U±1σ207Pb/206Pb ±1σ207Pb/235U±1σ206Pb/238U±1σ
12.81304226.3958.690.44965070.051490.004840.28530.026240.040210.00094263166255212546
23.35798735.2970.030.50392690.051120.005080.276340.02690.039230.00094246175248212486
36.90412774.73142.040.52611940.051740.003010.287630.016420.040340.00068274100257132554
46.13639111.63117.140.95296230.051630.004730.276950.024840.038920.0009269161248202466
55.2630780.88103.920.7782910.045450.006230.253570.034050.040490.00126−31212229282568
64.63524857.7593.060.62056740.051390.003350.282880.01810.039940.00071258114253142524
721.11227325.21394.570.82421370.057580.002890.320730.015760.040420.0006551480282122554
86.29548187.42127.80.68403760.051250.003860.27730.020430.039260.00079252131249162485
94.0453285678.960.70921990.05190.003820.28870.020820.040360.00079281129258162555
1048.06194965.74873.281.10587670.051910.002230.288140.012140.040270.0005828170257102554
114.28593645.3381.30.55756460.055480.006560.30.034780.039220.0009431269266272486
122.66624838.7251.460.75242910.054570.004290.303960.023380.040410.00083395136269182555
133.65430351.5873.680.70005430.051120.003940.277320.020930.039360.0008246134249172495
144.66736756.3592.010.61243340.062190.004220.344960.022810.040240.00079681108301172545
153.89723645.8678.340.5853970.062880.004520.343650.024060.039650.00082704114300182515
165.21576168.94103.470.66628010.051070.003580.284130.019520.040360.00077244122254152555
173.860460.6474.490.8140690.051620.004020.280380.021390.039410.0008269136251172495
184.6975949.7298.620.50415740.051410.005020.282280.026950.039830.00096259171252212526
1911.55523114.25242.680.47078460.051420.003350.285190.018190.040240.00073260113255142545
205.18442379.54103.380.76939450.051480.004350.276040.02280.038890.00085262147248182465
2136.22119546.46684.780.79800810.050990.0030.283450.016310.040320.00068240101253132554
223.64469441.7673.920.56493510.052770.007420.293970.04040.040410.00135319248262322558
232.65048835.5650.820.69972450.065130.006280.360930.03390.04020.00104779155313252546
246.449195.87129.20.74202790.0550.004940.298650.026220.039390.00093412155265212496
253.537722119126.510.94063710.049590.004190.142640.01180.020860.00044176147135101333
263.97893153.179.540.66758860.05850 0.00463 0.31692 0.02445 0.03930 0.00085 549131280192485
278.79750889.89180.430.49819870.05343 0.00230 0.29543 0.01250 0.04010 0.00058 34769263102534
2813.11822179.95258.050.69734550.05378 0.00213 0.29295 0.01138 0.03951 0.00055 3626226192503
2933.52457540.21550.820.98073780.05337 0.00267 0.33078 0.01621 0.04496 0.00070 34583290122844
307.113362113.12138.170.81870160.05498 0.00332 0.29763 0.01758 0.03926 0.00069 411101265142484
315.39176367.12109.330.61392120.05584 0.00455 0.30193 0.02404 0.03922 0.00086 446139268192485
325.86871186.66112.760.76853490.05374 0.00557 0.28426 0.02886 0.03836 0.00079 360237254232435
332.84301332.9758.860.56014270.05119 0.00510 0.27652 0.02699 0.03918 0.00093 249176248212486
3430.52906799.33406.291.96738780.05284 0.00247 0.32962 0.01511 0.04524 0.00068 32277289122854
358.12712113.21158.610.71376330.05893 0.00367 0.32044 0.01950 0.03944 0.00072 565101282152494
363.20406938.7258.40.66301370.05603 0.00923 0.29791 0.04823 0.03856 0.00116 454354265382447
377.76811784.17157.650.53390420.05038 0.00243 0.27905 0.01320 0.04017 0.00060 21382250102544
3812.6412993.71237.620.39436920.05373 0.00390 0.33140 0.02354 0.04473 0.00089 360125291182825
3933.54641521.92615.030.8486090.05586 0.00339 0.31451 0.01868 0.04083 0.00072 447101278142584
405.953845113.47111.461.01803340.05733 0.00340 0.30010 0.01738 0.03796 0.00066 50497266142404
416.15446652.04129.10.40309840.05331 0.00548 0.29600 0.02973 0.04026 0.00104 342179263232546
423.89523755.874.770.74628860.05131 0.00387 0.28324 0.02096 0.04003 0.00078 255133253172535
434.92269489.0589.560.99430550.05137 0.00339 0.28271 0.01826 0.03991 0.00072 257115253142524
4435.09399575.18682.040.8433230.05042 0.00263 0.26804 0.01370 0.03855 0.00060 21490241112444
4511.65767160.68224.290.7163940.05166 0.00570 0.28628 0.03090 0.04018 0.00109 270193256242547
4628.00515556.7486.081.14528470.04957 0.00211 0.27621 0.01156 0.04041 0.00057 1757124892554
476.272445106.38111.240.95631070.05681 0.00457 0.31737 0.02491 0.04051 0.00088 484136280192565
4851.21841874.33925.760.94444560.05600 0.00216 0.31234 0.01185 0.04045 0.00056 4525927692563
4920.55648216.14428.790.50406960.05401 0.00188 0.29327 0.01006 0.03937 0.00052 3715326182493
5045.8505162.89782.360.0803850.05274 0.00174 0.39393 0.01279 0.05416 0.00070 3185033793404
515.62584764.11110.830.57845350.05022 0.00281 0.27897 0.01531 0.04028 0.00065 20597250122554
528.85163123.86175.160.70712490.05131 0.00322 0.27760 0.01706 0.03923 0.00068 255109249142484
5315.50568316.16274.051.15365810.05126 0.00204 0.27970 0.01093 0.03956 0.00054 2536525092503
542.6005525.5855.290.46265150.05137 0.00761 0.28227 0.04086 0.03984 0.00140 257258252322529
5517.20924195.27342.80.56963240.05147 0.00237 0.28459 0.01286 0.04009 0.00059 26277254102534
563.27999648.3366.220.72983990.05045 0.00405 0.26888 0.02113 0.03864 0.00080 216140242172445
5721.89763251.02441.570.56847160.05388 0.00246 0.29851 0.01335 0.04017 0.00059 36674265102544
5823.79388352.77455.450.77455260.05775 0.00344 0.31684 0.01845 0.03978 0.00070 52097279142514
597.65161767.96163.220.41637050.05137 0.00278 0.27863 0.01478 0.03932 0.00063 25792250122494
605.59559669.81112.230.62202620.05292 0.00322 0.28908 0.01723 0.03961 0.00068 325104258142504
6117.38526191.28382.790.49969960.05037 0.00200 0.25969 0.01016 0.03738 0.00051 2126523482373
6211.54191142.07198.440.71593430.05050 0.00352 0.31393 0.02143 0.04507 0.00084 218121277172845
6311.02346100.16228.960.43745630.05555 0.01512 0.30783 0.08171 0.04017 0.00259 4344172726325416
647.27509184.99154.650.54956350.05075 0.00309 0.26816 0.01603 0.03831 0.00065 229106241132424
655.23282740.51112.110.36134150.05519 0.00482 0.30105 0.02567 0.03955 0.00090 420151267202506
663.40728634.0469.940.48670290.05146 0.00922 0.28190 0.04941 0.03972 0.00164 2612972523925110
675.9016189.42114.220.78287520.05188 0.00574 0.28021 0.03034 0.03915 0.00105 280194251242487
6816.55232210.9325.740.64744890.05161 0.00320 0.28678 0.01740 0.04028 0.00070 268107256142554
6939.606631120.43602.921.85833940.05149 0.00229 0.28489 0.01245 0.04011 0.00058 26374255102544
703.32595131.3870.020.44815770.05744 0.00547 0.31033 0.02883 0.03917 0.00096 508163274222486
714.54397142.2295.940.44006670.05098 0.00354 0.27608 0.01882 0.03926 0.00072 240122248152484
722.72053639.1553.140.73673320.05131 0.00659 0.27758 0.03489 0.03921 0.00116 255228249282487
7346.33442606.71910.690.66620910.05317 0.00133 0.28936 0.00718 0.03945 0.00047 3363525862493
7416.88434263.27319.690.82351650.05655 0.00400 0.30845 0.02133 0.03954 0.00078 474118273172505
7512.65926162.16247.650.65479510.05158 0.00221 0.28525 0.01199 0.04009 0.00057 2677025592534
763.14481627.5664.190.42935040.05589 0.00514 0.31006 0.02790 0.04022 0.00094 448160274222546
774.9826944.53104.040.42800850.05101 0.00608 0.28174 0.03286 0.04004 0.00114 241210252262537
785.65633450.64118.350.42788340.05362 0.00277 0.29190 0.01479 0.03946 0.00062 35586260122494
792.4879240.4947.120.85929540.06660 0.01050 0.35479 0.05439 0.03862 0.00157 8252593084124410
802.03466125.9838.590.67323140.05086 0.00738 0.27105 0.03864 0.03865 0.00106 235301244312447
Table 2. Isotopic and fossil ages of the Linxi Formation in Northeast China.
Table 2. Isotopic and fossil ages of the Linxi Formation in Northeast China.
LocationLithologyIsotopic AgePaleontological
Fossil Age		References
Songliao Basin (China)Siltstone257.4 ± 4.1 MaLate Permian (spores and pollen)[11,46]
Songliao Basin (China)Porphyry (Intrusion into Linxi Fm)245.6 ± 2.7 Ma [11]
Inner Mongolia (China)Andesitic tuff262.2 ± 1.1 Ma [30]
Inner Mongolia (China)Sandstone255 ± 2 MaLate Permian (plant fossil and pollen)[47,48]
Inner Mongolia (China)Sandstone256 Ma [22]
Inner Mongolia (China)Sandstone263 Ma [49]
Table 3. Major and trace element compositions of clastic rocks from the Linxi Formation (wt.% for major oxides and ppm for trace elements).
Table 3. Major and trace element compositions of clastic rocks from the Linxi Formation (wt.% for major oxides and ppm for trace elements).
Sample1464H21464H31466.95H1468.6H21468.5H2148H2149H2150H2286.1H2287.1H2287.8H2288.1H2289.5H2711.7H2713.5H2714.3H2714.6H2720.7H
SiO260.1 60.5 54.5 56.0 57.6 73.8 70.4 66.7 65.5 60.0 60.4 60.5 62.9 64.2 69.9 67.2 69.5 63.7
TiO20.79 0.76 0.49 0.78 0.80 0.27 0.26 0.21 0.76 0.86 0.78 0.86 0.81 0.21 0.48 0.58 0.54 0.54
Al2O317.5 17.2 11.9 17.8 17.4 7.4 6.5 6.1 14.6 17.8 17.6 18.1 17.0 6.1 11.8 14.5 13.2 14.0
Fe2O3-T5.67 5.33 2.65 7.74 7.01 2.32 2.26 2.12 5.01 7.20 5.97 6.46 5.97 2.30 4.23 4.08 4.23 5.86
MnO0.11 0.12 0.19 0.07 0.06 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.09 0.11 0.10 0.11 0.10 0.15 0.13 0.09 0.09 0.11
MgO3.31 3.22 0.77 4.04 3.59 1.37 1.55 1.30 1.78 2.87 2.27 2.28 2.12 0.58 1.23 1.47 1.75 2.74
CaO2.48 3.66 14.25 1.81 1.90 7.95 9.65 12.94 5.07 3.14 3.28 3.48 3.70 15.19 6.41 4.78 2.87 3.90
Na2O7.69 7.29 5.95 7.69 8.02 1.36 1.11 1.01 3.46 4.93 6.31 4.72 4.20 0.87 2.30 3.25 3.59 4.13
K2O0.85 0.50 0.09 0.73 0.66 1.07 1.24 0.95 1.22 1.40 1.94 1.86 2.02 1.34 2.01 1.91 1.61 1.92
P2O50.13 0.13 0.10 0.20 0.21 0.10 0.10 0.09 0.12 0.13 0.01 0.13 0.12 0.07 0.11 0.15 0.12 0.14
LOI1.92 1.62 9.25 4.04 3.73 4.37 7.23 9.18 2.61 2.48 1.76 2.16 1.84 9.35 1.59 2.13 2.62 3.70
Total100.0 99.8 99.7 99.9 100.1 99.8 100.0 100.3 99.7 100.2 99.9 100.0 100.2 100.0 99.9 99.8 99.7 100.1
K2O/Na2O0.11 0.07 0.01 0.10 0.08 0.79 1.12 0.93 0.35 0.28 0.31 0.39 0.48 1.55 0.87 0.59 0.45 0.47
Fe2O3 + MgO8.87 8.46 3.16 11.46 10.36 3.58 3.65 3.23 6.64 9.90 8.12 8.60 7.99 2.66 5.39 5.46 5.86 8.40
B18.9 18.7 6.5 22.7 20.7 18.4 24.0 21.4 12.1 16.1 12.8 12.6 12.4 9.6 10.4 10.1 13.3 19.7
ICV1.36 1.33 1.14 1.43 1.45 1.06 1.27 1.14 0.92 1.07 1.14 0.97 0.96 0.97 0.96 0.93 1.07 1.27
CIA55.3 56.7 53.2 55.9 54.5 65.0 63.4 65.1 65.8 63.5 57.4 63.6 63.7 63.7 64.3 64.4 61.6 59.6
Sc15.76 14.71 9.78 19.03 20.60 7.23 6.33 5.70 14.41 15.65 14.36 14.72 14.34 4.80 11.60 13.39 13.40 11.03
V114 106 58 122 135 39 35 31 131 101 88 96 95 30 120 105 112 91
Cr68.6 62.2 39.0 51.9 59.8 27.8 26.2 22.2 54.1 61.0 52.8 55.6 54.2 19.2 42.8 45.1 48.7 40.6
Ni28.3 25.6 22.9 45.0 51.5 24.6 21.7 18.7 27.1 34.8 29.9 33.6 35.7 18.1 39.8 62.3 70.6 90.0
Cu27.3 21.7 27.2 43.2 46.4 21.7 17.8 19.7 29.4 26.1 23.5 29.5 31.8 24.2 33.2 48.0 43.7 76.6
Zn69 56 7 106 100 55 43 29 54 72 64 68 66 27 114 120 159 139
Ga18.0 17.9 8.6 21.6 21.5 8.7 7.0 6.5 18.6 17.5 17.7 18.9 16.1 7.2 15.9 18.0 17.9 15.3
Rb17.6 11.2 2.4 15.8 15.6 28.0 32.9 24.5 23.7 28.3 39.1 32.6 36.7 20.4 39.7 51.3 38.2 58.8
Sr197 225 294 203 210 239 193 221 390 380 375 395 460 285 363 449 393 451
Y13.8 13.7 16.2 28.2 28.8 15.1 13.2 13.1 15.7 14.2 13.2 13.3 15.6 13.1 20.8 25.3 24.9 21.5
Zr100 105 108 207 224 81 86 83 156 143 131 144 139 85 132 177 148 137
Nb6.55 6.28 5.95 8.91 9.24 4.46 4.31 4.72 8.67 6.88 7.08 7.36 7.01 6.42 7.95 9.02 8.01 8.29
Cs1.37 0.93 0.35 0.88 1.08 1.80 1.58 1.64 1.11 1.78 2.47 2.05 2.34 0.45 0.76 1.58 1.32 3.62
Ba81 41 15 74 54 100 102 77 252 345 525 412 316 215 530 539 597 369
Co17.14 16.82 16.85 19.76 22.46 7.98 7.00 6.02 16.25 16.68 14.58 16.45 18.00 6.75 14.64 18.99 19.27 19.46
La13.6 13.1 22.0 24.1 27.6 15.0 18.5 12.5 12.8 15.0 14.1 15.7 16.0 22.9 16.8 26.1 20.0 22.4
Ce26.0 25.3 41.2 44.9 51.4 21.5 24.1 17.8 28.9 32.5 27.7 30.7 32.5 35.5 35.2 48.9 42.1 47.9
Pr3.48 3.27 5.46 5.75 6.46 3.56 3.75 2.81 3.69 4.29 3.57 3.94 3.99 4.10 4.81 7.09 6.10 6.61
Nd14.0 14.2 20.3 21.5 24.7 14.3 15.2 11.1 15.0 16.9 13.8 15.4 17.2 15.2 18.4 26.2 22.9 24.4
Sm2.80 3.08 4.00 5.16 5.01 2.86 2.70 2.27 3.09 3.25 2.92 3.30 3.25 2.45 4.27 5.65 5.48 5.43
Eu0.84 0.99 0.79 1.18 0.95 0.56 0.65 0.50 1.11 0.96 0.91 1.12 0.98 0.57 0.90 1.25 1.26 1.17
Gd2.38 2.49 3.29 4.88 4.76 2.46 2.38 2.23 2.89 3.21 2.76 2.85 3.06 2.32 3.39 4.94 4.82 4.80
Tb0.46 0.48 0.55 0.81 0.85 0.44 0.38 0.37 0.54 0.51 0.46 0.53 0.54 0.42 0.57 0.85 0.88 0.77
Dy2.34 2.42 3.00 5.04 5.16 2.38 2.07 1.86 2.67 2.79 2.62 2.93 2.68 2.36 3.33 4.55 4.48 4.31
Ho0.43 0.50 0.51 0.93 1.01 0.47 0.48 0.45 0.62 0.53 0.50 0.58 0.56 0.47 0.75 0.90 0.91 0.90
Er1.16 1.19 1.55 2.69 2.81 1.09 0.99 1.04 1.64 1.36 1.29 1.40 1.46 1.30 2.18 2.58 2.43 2.46
Tm0.21 0.18 0.26 0.47 0.47 0.19 0.20 0.16 0.30 0.25 0.23 0.23 0.25 0.18 0.39 0.38 0.37 0.40
Yb1.36 1.17 1.64 3.32 3.05 1.08 0.95 0.95 1.90 1.58 1.15 1.31 1.55 1.41 2.38 2.60 2.38 2.48
Lu0.19 0.18 0.23 0.43 0.45 0.15 0.16 0.14 0.32 0.22 0.19 0.21 0.22 0.19 0.33 0.36 0.35 0.42
Hf3.03 2.71 2.99 5.87 5.87 1.98 1.99 1.76 4.30 4.08 2.97 3.63 3.54 1.85 3.60 3.98 3.85 3.79
Ta0.32 0.32 1.55 0.70 0.72 0.27 0.28 0.25 0.59 0.46 0.44 0.45 0.58 0.40 0.53 0.62 0.78 0.67
Pb16.8 10.8 11.5 20.4 28.2 10.6 10.6 9.5 12.4 12.1 12.5 11.9 17.5 15.0 12.9 14.9 12.3 23.4
Th3.83 3.80 4.17 8.58 9.79 4.26 3.20 3.29 6.64 4.53 4.21 4.74 4.61 5.82 8.32 7.55 7.94 7.12
U0.53 0.54 0.88 2.62 2.51 1.02 0.99 0.76 0.90 0.55 0.52 0.55 0.57 1.62 1.66 1.52 1.57 1.16
ΣREE69.3 68.5 104.8 121.1 134.7 66.1 72.6 54.1 75.5 83.4 72.1 80.2 84.2 89.4 93.7 132.3 114.5 124.6
LREE60.7 59.9 93.8 102.6 116.1 57.8 65.0 46.9 64.6 72.9 62.9 70.2 73.9 80.7 80.4 115.2 97.9 108.0
HREE8.55 8.61 11.03 18.57 18.56 8.25 7.61 7.19 10.87 10.44 9.20 10.01 10.30 8.63 13.31 17.16 16.62 16.56
LREE/HREE7.1 7.0 8.5 5.5 6.3 7.0 8.5 6.5 5.9 7.0 6.8 7.0 7.2 9.4 6.0 6.7 5.9 6.5
Rb/Sr0.089 0.050 0.008 0.078 0.074 0.117 0.170 0.111 0.061 0.074 0.104 0.082 0.080 0.072 0.109 0.114 0.097 0.130
LaN/YbN7.16 8.02 9.61 5.20 6.49 10.02 14.01 9.47 4.86 6.82 8.82 8.64 7.42 11.71 5.06 7.20 6.04 6.48
δEu0.97 1.05 0.65 0.71 0.59 0.63 0.77 0.67 1.12 0.90 0.96 1.09 0.94 0.71 0.70 0.71 0.74 0.68
δCe0.90 0.92 0.90 0.90 0.91 0.70 0.67 0.71 1.01 0.98 0.93 0.93 0.97 0.83 0.95 0.87 0.93 0.95
Note: δEu = Eu/Eu* = Eu CN/(Sm CN × Gd CN) 1/2; δCe = Ce/Ce* = Ce CN/(La CN × Pr CN) 1/2. N = Chondrite Normalized; the normalization value after [44,45]. LOI: loss ion ignition. b = 100 × (MgO/Al2O3).
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Huang, X.; Zhang, H.; Qiu, L.; Li, G.; Zhang, Y.; Chen, W.; Chen, S.; Zheng, Y. Geochemistry and Geochronology of the Late Permian Linxi Formation in the Songliao Basin, China: Tectonic Implications for the Paleo-Asian Ocean. Minerals 2025, 15, 784. https://doi.org/10.3390/min15080784

AMA Style

Huang X, Zhang H, Qiu L, Li G, Zhang Y, Chen W, Chen S, Zheng Y. Geochemistry and Geochronology of the Late Permian Linxi Formation in the Songliao Basin, China: Tectonic Implications for the Paleo-Asian Ocean. Minerals. 2025; 15(8):784. https://doi.org/10.3390/min15080784

Chicago/Turabian Style

Huang, Xin, Haihua Zhang, Liang Qiu, Gongjian Li, Yujin Zhang, Wei Chen, Shuwang Chen, and Yuejuan Zheng. 2025. "Geochemistry and Geochronology of the Late Permian Linxi Formation in the Songliao Basin, China: Tectonic Implications for the Paleo-Asian Ocean" Minerals 15, no. 8: 784. https://doi.org/10.3390/min15080784

APA Style

Huang, X., Zhang, H., Qiu, L., Li, G., Zhang, Y., Chen, W., Chen, S., & Zheng, Y. (2025). Geochemistry and Geochronology of the Late Permian Linxi Formation in the Songliao Basin, China: Tectonic Implications for the Paleo-Asian Ocean. Minerals, 15(8), 784. https://doi.org/10.3390/min15080784

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