Minerals

5526 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Factors Affecting the Upgrading of a Nickeliferous Limonitic Laterite Ore by Reduction Roasting, Thermal Growth and Magnetic Separation

by Filipe Rodrigues, Christopher A. Pickles, John Peacey, Richard Elliott and John Forster

Minerals 2017, 7(9), 176; https://doi.org/10.3390/min7090176 - 20 Sep 2017

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 7093

Abstract

There is considerable interest in the development of new processes to extract the nickel from the oxidic nickeliferous laterite deposits, as the global nickel sulphide resources are rapidly becoming more difficult to access. In comparison to sulphide ores, where the nickel-containing mineral can [...] Read more.

There is considerable interest in the development of new processes to extract the nickel from the oxidic nickeliferous laterite deposits, as the global nickel sulphide resources are rapidly becoming more difficult to access. In comparison to sulphide ores, where the nickel-containing mineral can be readily concentrated by flotation, nickel laterites are not amenable to significant upgrading, due to their complex mineralogy. In this paper, firstly, a brief overview of the conventional techniques used to process the nickeliferous limonitic laterites is given, as well as a review of current research in the area. Secondly, a thermodynamic model is developed to simulate the roasting process and to aid in the selection of process parameters to maximize the nickel recovery and grade and also to minimize the magnetite content of the concentrate. Thirdly, a two-stage process involving reduction roasting and thermal growth in either a tube furnace or a rotary kiln furnace, followed by magnetic separation, was investigated. Thermogravimetric, differential thermal and mineral liberation analyses techniques were utilized to further understand the process. Finally, the nickel grades and recovery results were compared to those available in the literature. Full article

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147 KiB

Open AccessErratum

Erratum for Blamey, N.J.F., et al. The Hydrothermal Fluid Evolution of Vein Sets at the Pipeline Gold Mine, Nevada. Minerals 2017, 7, 100; doi:10.3390/min7060100

by Nigel J. F. Blamey, Andrew R. Campbell and Matt T. Heizler

Minerals 2017, 7(9), 175; https://doi.org/10.3390/min7090175 - 20 Sep 2017

Viewed by 2760

Abstract

The authors wish to make the following corrections to the main text in the published paper [1]:[...] Full article

11729 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Quartz-Amethyst Hosted Hydrocarbon-Bearing Fluid Inclusions from the Green Ridge Breccia in the Snoqualmie Granite, North Cascades, WA, USA

by Martin Feely, Alessandra Costanzo, Franzisca Lindner, Joe George, John Parnell, Stephen Bowden, Mas’ud Baba and Peter Owens

Minerals 2017, 7(9), 174; https://doi.org/10.3390/min7090174 - 19 Sep 2017

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 7437

Abstract

The Green Ridge Breccia cuts the composite Miocene Snoqualmie Batholith in King County, WA, USA. The granite was emplaced at ~5 km depth between ~17 and 20 Ma and the crosscutting NW trending breccia contains large angular blocks of the host granite (<1 [...] Read more.

The Green Ridge Breccia cuts the composite Miocene Snoqualmie Batholith in King County, WA, USA. The granite was emplaced at ~5 km depth between ~17 and 20 Ma and the crosscutting NW trending breccia contains large angular blocks of the host granite (<1 m in longest dimension). The brecciated granite blocks are cemented by quartz-amethyst euhedra (<10 cm in longest dimension) bearing vugs. A notable feature is the presence of centimetric scale amber coloured oil inclusions within the quartz-amethyst crystals. Fluid inclusion studies using Transmitted Light Petrography, UV Microscopy, Microthermometry, Laser Raman Microspectroscopy and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry record the presence and the fluid composition of three fluid inclusion types hosted by the euhedra: primary Type 1 (liquid rich two-phase (L + V) aqueous inclusions) and secondary Type 2 bituminous two-phase (S + L) inclusions and Type 3 amber coloured oil bearing two-phase immiscible liquid inclusions. The Green Ridge Breccia was the locus for convective hydrothermal fluid flow that formed the quartz-amethyst vugs formed at T~390 °C assuming a trapping pressure of ~1.65 kb. Later, hydrocarbon fluids migrated downwards from the roof source rock (e.g., the Guye Sedimentary Member) and were trapped in the euhedra. This was followed by unroofing of the batholith and exposure of the Green Ridge Breccia. This study highlights the potential for other oil migrations into the Snoqualmie Batholith in areas where it forms the basement capped by the Guye Sedimentary Member. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fluid Inclusions: Study Methods, Applications and Case Histories)

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4330 KiB

Open AccessArticle

CO₂ Absorption and Magnesium Carbonate Precipitation in MgCl₂–NH₃–NH₄Cl Solutions: Implications for Carbon Capture and Storage

by Chen Zhu, Han Wang, Gen Li, Siyu An, Xiaofeng Ding, Hui Henry Teng and Liang Zhao

Minerals 2017, 7(9), 172; https://doi.org/10.3390/min7090172 - 19 Sep 2017

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 14910

Abstract

CO₂ absorption and carbonate precipitation are the two core processes controlling the reaction rate and path of CO₂ mineral sequestration. Whereas previous studies have focused on testing reactive crystallization and precipitation kinetics, much less attention has been paid to absorption, the [...] Read more.

CO₂ absorption and carbonate precipitation are the two core processes controlling the reaction rate and path of CO₂ mineral sequestration. Whereas previous studies have focused on testing reactive crystallization and precipitation kinetics, much less attention has been paid to absorption, the key process determining the removal efficiency of CO₂. In this study, adopting a novel wetted wall column reactor, we systematically explore the rates and mechanisms of carbon transformation from CO₂ gas to carbonates in MgCl₂–NH₃–NH₄Cl solutions. We find that reactive diffusion in liquid film of the wetted wall column is the rate-limiting step of CO₂ absorption when proceeding chiefly through interactions between CO₂(aq) and NH₃(aq). We further quantified the reaction kinetic constant of the CO₂–NH₃ reaction. Our results indicate that higher initial concentration of NH₄Cl (

\geq 2 mol \cdot L^{- 1}

) leads to the precipitation of roguinite [

{({NH}_{4})}_{2} Mg {({CO}_{3})}_{2} \cdot 4 H_{2} O

], while nesquehonite appears to be the dominant Mg-carbonate without NH₄Cl addition. We also noticed dypingite formation via phase transformation in hot water. This study provides new insight into the reaction kinetics of CO₂ mineral carbonation that indicates the potential of this technique for future application to industrial-scale CO₂ sequestration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Capture and Storage via Mineral Carbonation)

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10032 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Indium Mineralization in the Xianghualing Sn-Polymetallic Orefield in Southern Hunan, Southern China

by Jianping Liu, Yanan Rong, Shugen Zhang, Zhongfa Liu and Weikang Chen

Minerals 2017, 7(9), 173; https://doi.org/10.3390/min7090173 - 18 Sep 2017

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 6703

Abstract

Although numerous W–Sn–Pb–Zn polymetallic deposits are located in southern Hunan, and In-bearing deposits are related to W–Sn–Pb–Zn polymetallic deposits, Indium mineralization in southern Hunan is poorly studied. In order to investigate the In mineralization of the Xianghualing orefield, which is a typical orefield [...] Read more.

Although numerous W–Sn–Pb–Zn polymetallic deposits are located in southern Hunan, and In-bearing deposits are related to W–Sn–Pb–Zn polymetallic deposits, Indium mineralization in southern Hunan is poorly studied. In order to investigate the In mineralization of the Xianghualing orefield, which is a typical orefield in southern Hunan, ore bulk chemistry, microscopic observation, and electron-probe microanalysis of vein-type (type-I) and porphyry-type (type-II) Sn–Pb–Zn orebodies were studied. The In contents of the type-I orebodies varies from 0.79 to 1680 ppm (avg. 217 ppm, n = 29), and that of the type-II orebodies varies from 10 to 150 ppm (avg. 64 ppm, n = 10). Although chalcopyrite and stannite contain trace amounts of In, sphalerite is the most important In-rich mineral in the orefield. Sphalerite in type-I orebodies contains from <0.02 to 21.96 wt % In, and in type-II orebodies contains from <0.02 to 0.39 wt % In. Indium-rich chemical-zoned sphalerite contains 7 to 8 wt % In in its core and up to 21.96 wt % In in its rim. This sphalerite may be the highest In-bearing variety in Southern China. The Cd contents of the In-rich sphalerite ranges from 0.35 to 0.45 wt %, which places it in the the “Indium window” of the Cu–In–S phases. The geological and structural features of the Xianghualing orefield indicate that the In mineralization of the two types of In-bearing Sn–Pb–Zn orebodies is related to the volatile-rich, In-rich, A-type granites, and is controlled by the normal faults of magmatic-diapiric activity extensional features. Full article

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15568 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Geochronology of Hydrothermal Processes Leading to the Formation of the Au–U Mineralization at the Rompas Prospect, Peräpohja Belt, Northern Finland: Application of Paired U–Pb Dating of Uraninite and Re–Os Dating of Molybdenite to the Identification of Multiple Hydrothermal Events in a Metamorphic Terrane

by Ferenc Molnár, Hugh O’Brien, Holly Stein and Nick D. J. Cook

Minerals 2017, 7(9), 171; https://doi.org/10.3390/min7090171 - 15 Sep 2017

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 6142

Abstract

The Peräpohja belt comprises a greenschist to amphibolite facies; multiply-folded supracrustal sequence of quartzites; mafic volcanics; carbonate rocks; black shales; mica schists and greywackes deposited from ca. 2.44 Ga to 1.92 Ga; during protracted rifting of the Archaean basement. Metamorphism and multiple folding [...] Read more.

The Peräpohja belt comprises a greenschist to amphibolite facies; multiply-folded supracrustal sequence of quartzites; mafic volcanics; carbonate rocks; black shales; mica schists and greywackes deposited from ca. 2.44 Ga to 1.92 Ga; during protracted rifting of the Archaean basement. Metamorphism and multiple folding of the basin fill occurred during the Svecofennian orogeny (1.92–1.80 Ga). The Rompas Au–U mineralization is hosted within deformed and metamorphosed calcsilicate veins in mafic volcanics. Textural evidence suggests that deposition and periods of uraninite re-mobilization were followed by localized hydrocarbon-bearing fluid flow which produced pyrobitumen crusts around grains of uraninite. Gold precipitated during the latest hydrothermal event at around 1.75 Ga. In situ U–Pb dating of uraninite by laser ablation inductively coupled mass spectroscopy (LA-ICP-MS), and Re–Os dating of molybdenite, indicate that primary hydrothermal uranium mineralization forms two age clusters; about 2.03–2.01 and 1.95–1.94 Ga. Resetting of the U–Pb system and precipitation of new generations of uraninite are associated with major deformation and metamorphic stages of the Svecofennian orogeny at 1.91–1.89 Ga, 1.85 Ga, and 1.80 Ga. Gold deposition was synchronous with the emplacement of the 1.75–1.78 Ga late/post-orogenic granitoids. The gold-producing hydrothermal event is also recorded by Re–Os dating of molybdenite from the gold-bearing Mg-metasomatized metasedimentary and metavolcanic units at the Palokas prospect; a few kilometres from Rompas. Results of this study confirm that some domains in the structure of uraninite may preserve the original crystallization age, despite an overprinting amphibolite facies metamorphic and other hydrothermal events. The study supports the utility of in situ U–Pb dating of uraninite and the ability of Re–Os dating to assist in sorting out different hydrothermal events in areas with complex tectonic; magmatic and metamorphic histories. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geochemistry and Mineralogy of Hydrothermal Metallic Mineral Deposits)

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18567 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mineralogical and Geochemical Compositions of the Lopingian Coals and Carbonaceous Rocks in the Shugentian Coalfield, Yunnan, China: with Emphasis on Fe-Bearing Minerals in a Continental-Marine Transitional Environment

by Xue Zheng, Zhen Wang, Lei Wang, Yaguang Xu and Jingjing Liu

Minerals 2017, 7(9), 170; https://doi.org/10.3390/min7090170 - 14 Sep 2017

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 6391

Abstract

This paper presents the mineralogical and geochemical compositions of coal benches and non-coal (carbonaceous rock benches, parting, roof and floor) samples from the No. 1 Coal in the Longtan Formation of the Permian-Lopingian epoch from the Shugentian Coalfield, eastern Yunnan Province, southwestern China. [...] Read more.

This paper presents the mineralogical and geochemical compositions of coal benches and non-coal (carbonaceous rock benches, parting, roof and floor) samples from the No. 1 Coal in the Longtan Formation of the Permian-Lopingian epoch from the Shugentian Coalfield, eastern Yunnan Province, southwestern China. The coal is rich in Nb, Ta, Zr, and Hf, which were derived from the Kangdian Upland with the dominant compositions of the Emeishan basalt. The minerals identified in the samples include mixed-layer illite-smectite, kaolinite, quartz, siderite, and minor calcite, pyrite, anatase and ankerite. Albite and chamosite occur in the roof and floor samples. The parting sample (SGT1-2p) is characterized by abundant siderite (64.9%) and calcite (20.1%), and one carbonaceous rock sample SGT1-11 contained a large amount of pyrite (26.1%). Four factors were responsible for the geochemical and mineralogical compositions in the samples; namely, the terrigenous detrital materials transported from the Kangdian Upland, direct volcanic ash inputs, multi-stage inputs of hydrothermal fluids, and marine influences. The co-existence of siderite and pyrite was attributed to a continental-marine transitional environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxic Mineral Matter in Coal and Coal Combustion Products)

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3360 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Connecting the Morphological and Crystal Structural Changes during the Conversion of Lithium Hydroxide Monohydrate to Lithium Carbonate Using Multi-Scale X-ray Scattering Measurements

by Greeshma Gadikota

Minerals 2017, 7(9), 169; https://doi.org/10.3390/min7090169 - 14 Sep 2017

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 6446

Abstract

While CO₂ storage technologies via carbon mineralization have focused on the use of earth-abundant calcium- and magnesium-bearing minerals, there is an emerging interest in the scalable synthesis of alternative carbonates such as lithium carbonate. Lithium carbonate is the carbonated end-product of lithium [...] Read more.

While CO₂ storage technologies via carbon mineralization have focused on the use of earth-abundant calcium- and magnesium-bearing minerals, there is an emerging interest in the scalable synthesis of alternative carbonates such as lithium carbonate. Lithium carbonate is the carbonated end-product of lithium hydroxide, a highly reactive sorbent for CO₂ capture in spacecraft and submarines. Other emerging applications include tuning the morphology of lithium carbonates synthesized from the effluent of treated Li-bearing batteries, which can then be reused in ceramics, glasses, and batteries. In this study, in operando Ultra-Small-Angle, Small-Angle, and Wide-Angle X-ray Scattering (USAXS/SAXS/WAXS) measurements were used to link the morphological and crystal structural changes as lithium hydroxide monohydrate is converted to lithium carbonate. The experiments were performed in a flow-through reactor at P_CO₂ of 1 atm and at temperatures in the range of 25–500 °C. The dehydration of lithium hydroxide monohydrate to form lithium hydroxide occurs in the temperature range of 25–150 °C, while the onset of carbonate formation is evident at around 70 °C. A reduction in the nanoparticle size and an increase in the surface area were noted during the dehydration of lithium hydroxide monohydrate. Lithium carbonate formation increases the nanoparticle size and reduces the surface area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Capture and Storage via Mineral Carbonation)

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1203 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review of the Carbon Footprint of Cu and Zn Production from Primary and Secondary Sources

by Anna Ekman Nilsson, Marta Macias Aragonés, Fatima Arroyo Torralvo, Vincent Dunon, Hanna Angel, Konstantinos Komnitsas and Karin Willquist

Minerals 2017, 7(9), 168; https://doi.org/10.3390/min7090168 - 13 Sep 2017

Cited by 57 | Viewed by 13803

Abstract

Copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) with their unique properties are central for economic growth, quality of life, and the creation of new jobs. The base-metal producing sector is, however, under growing public pressure in respect to energy and water requirements and needs to [...] Read more.

Copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) with their unique properties are central for economic growth, quality of life, and the creation of new jobs. The base-metal producing sector is, however, under growing public pressure in respect to energy and water requirements and needs to meet several challenges, including increased demand and lower ore grades, which are generally associated with larger resource use. The development of technologies for metal production from secondary sources is often motivated by increased sustainability, and this paper aims to provide further insights about one specific aspect of sustainability—namely, climate change. The paper presents a review of carbon footprints (CF) for Cu and Zn produced from primary and secondary raw materials by analyzing data taken from scientific literature and the Ecoinvent database. Comparisons are carried out based on the source of data selected as a reference case. The data available in the literature indicate that secondary production of Cu and Zn has the potential to be more beneficial compared to primary production regarding the impact on climate change. However, the technologies used today for the production of both metals from secondary sources are still immature, and more research on this topic is needed. The general variation of data suggests that the standardization of a comparison is needed when assessing the environmental benefits of production in line with the principles of waste valorization, the zero waste approach, and circular economy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 2nd International Conference on Mining in Europe)

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9785 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Carbothermic Reduction of Ferruginous Manganese Ore for Mn/Fe Beneficiation: Morphology Evolution and Separation Characteristic

by Lingyun Yi, Zhucheng Huang, Tao Jiang, Peng Zhao, Ronghai Zhong and Zhikai Liang

Minerals 2017, 7(9), 167; https://doi.org/10.3390/min7090167 - 11 Sep 2017

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 6568

Abstract

In the present paper, beneficiation of Fe and Mn elements from a ferruginous manganese ore via carbothermic reduction followed by magnetic separation process was investigated in detail. The effects of the experimental parameters were systematically discussed. Iron-rich products with an Fe grade of [...] Read more.

In the present paper, beneficiation of Fe and Mn elements from a ferruginous manganese ore via carbothermic reduction followed by magnetic separation process was investigated in detail. The effects of the experimental parameters were systematically discussed. Iron-rich products with an Fe grade of 62.3% and 88.2% of Fe recovery, and manganese-rich product with a Mn grade of 63.7% of and 70.4% of Mn recovery were obtained, respectively, at an optimal temperature of 1100 °C, with a roasting time of 100 min, anthracite addition of 25%, milling fineness of 90% passing 0.074 mm, and a magnetic intensity of 140 A/m. Furthermore, the morphology evolution and phase transformation laws along with reduction process were revealed by optical microscope, scanning electron microscope equipped with energy dispersive X-ray detector (SEM-EDX), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and chemical phase analysis. The results demonstrated that the ferruginous manganese ore reduction can be described as follows: plate-like Fe-Mn symbiotic phase decomposition → granular MnO phase formation → fine metallic iron formation → aggregation of metallic iron → boundary development between Fe and Mn phases. Full article

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17360 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Coalbed Incidence Angle on Methane Enrichment Zone in Longwall Gob

by Shengyong Hu, Ao Zhang, Guorui Feng, Shuwen Guan, Xiangqian Guo, Chao Li and Guang Xu

Minerals 2017, 7(9), 166; https://doi.org/10.3390/min7090166 - 11 Sep 2017

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4031

Abstract

To control methane emissions in gob into longwall working faces, it is necessary to understand the distributions of methane enrichment zones (MEZ) around mined coal seams with different incidence angles. In this paper, FLAC^3D software is used to calculate the three-dimensional stress [...] Read more.

To control methane emissions in gob into longwall working faces, it is necessary to understand the distributions of methane enrichment zones (MEZ) around mined coal seams with different incidence angles. In this paper, FLAC^3D software is used to calculate the three-dimensional stress distributions in MEZ in gobs with coalbed incidence angles ranging from 0° to 50°. The results show that MEZ consistently exhibit a “hexagon” shape, and rotate in a clockwise direction as the coalbed angle increases. The MEZ range above the mined seam is larger than that below the mined seam. As the coalbed angle increases, the MEZ range in the roof decreases, while the MEZ range in the floor increases. The MEZ height increases significantly as the coalbed angle increases. The MEZ widths in coal pillars of gobs increase slightly as the coalbed angle increases. The methane concentration increases exponentially as the height in the MEZ increases. The surface borehole bottoms located relatively higher in the MEZ can drain methane with a higher concentration and flow rate, as verified by a field test in the Pansan mine, China. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 6th International Symposium on Mining and Environmental Protection)

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6533 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Muscovite ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar Age and H-O-S Isotopes of the Shimensi Tungsten Deposit (Northern Jiangxi Province, South China) and Their Metallogenic Implications

by Wen-Feng Wei, Bing Yan, Neng-Ping Shen, Lei Liu, Yong Zhang and Xin-Kui Xiang

Minerals 2017, 7(9), 162; https://doi.org/10.3390/min7090162 - 11 Sep 2017

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 5095

Abstract

The Shimensi deposit (Northern Jiangxi, South China) is a recently discovered super-large tungsten deposit. Muscovite ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar dating yielded a plateau age of 145.7 ± 0.9 Ma, with normal and inverse isochronal ages being 145.4 ± 1.4 Ma and 145.3 ± [...] Read more.

The Shimensi deposit (Northern Jiangxi, South China) is a recently discovered super-large tungsten deposit. Muscovite ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar dating yielded a plateau age of 145.7 ± 0.9 Ma, with normal and inverse isochronal ages being 145.4 ± 1.4 Ma and 145.3 ± 1.4 Ma, respectively. The muscovite ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar age, which can represent the mineralization age, coincides well with the published zircon U–Pb ages (143–148 Ma) of the ore-hosting granites, which indicates that the tungsten mineralization was syn-magmatic. The new age reported here confirms that the Shimensi tungsten deposit is part of a large Early Cretaceous (147–136 Ma) tungsten-polymetallic belt in South China. Measured and calculated sulfur isotopic compositions (δ³⁴S_minerals = −3.0‰ to 1.1‰, average −1.3‰;

δ^{34} S_{H_{2} S}

= −4.5‰ to +1.2‰, average −1.8‰) of the Shimensi ore-forming fluids indicate that the sulfur was mainly magmatic-derived. The calculated and measured oxygen and hydrogen isotopic compositions (

δ^{18} O_{H_{2} O}

= 4.1‰ to 6.7‰, δD = −62.7‰ to −68‰) of the ore-forming fluids indicate a dominantly magmatic source with a meteoric water input. Oxygen isotopic modelling of the boiling/mixing processes indicates that the Shimensi tungsten mineralization was caused mainly by fluid mixing of magmatic hydrothermal fluid with meteoric water. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geochemistry and Mineralogy of Hydrothermal Metallic Mineral Deposits)

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893 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rheology of Fly Ash Mixed Tailings Slurries and Applicability of Prediction Models

by Joon Kyu Lee, Junyoung Ko and Young Sang Kim

Minerals 2017, 7(9), 165; https://doi.org/10.3390/min7090165 - 8 Sep 2017

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 6635

Abstract

Coal fly ash has potential applications in the management of reactive mine tailings. The shear stress versus shear rate curves obtained during viscometer tests are presented to describe the rheological behaviors of tailings slurries mixed with fly ash. The investigation was conducted on [...] Read more.

Coal fly ash has potential applications in the management of reactive mine tailings. The shear stress versus shear rate curves obtained during viscometer tests are presented to describe the rheological behaviors of tailings slurries mixed with fly ash. The investigation was conducted on specimens prepared with different fly ash additions as well as prepared at variable conditions of temperature, mixing time, and CaCl₂ solution. It was observed that the rheological properties of ash-tailings slurry mixtures are influenced by the hydration of fly ash as well as the particle packing and arrangement. Rheological properties of specimen mixtures were determined from the resulting flow curves using the existing rheological models. The performance of prediction models in calculating the rheological properties of the mixed specimens, as quantified by the root mean square error (RMSE), varied with the mixture constituents, temperature, and time. In general, the Papanastasion, Herschel-Bulkley, Sisko, and Robertson-Stiff models were found to be favorable for use with mixtures of fly ash and tailings slurries, compared to the Bingham, Modified Bingham, Casson, and De Kee models. Full article

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6568 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mineral Quantification with Simultaneous Refinement of Ca-Mg Carbonates Non-Stoichiometry by X-ray Diffraction, Rietveld Method

by Hélisson Nascimento Dos Santos, Reiner Neumann and Ciro Alexandre Ávila

Minerals 2017, 7(9), 164; https://doi.org/10.3390/min7090164 - 8 Sep 2017

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 7172

Abstract

Quantitative phase analyses of carbonate rocks containing Mg-rich calcite and non-stoichiometric dolomite by the Rietveld method yielded improved results when the substitutions are refined for either minerals. The refinement is constrained by the c-axis of the lattice for both minerals using the [...] Read more.

Quantitative phase analyses of carbonate rocks containing Mg-rich calcite and non-stoichiometric dolomite by the Rietveld method yielded improved results when the substitutions are refined for either minerals. The refinement is constrained by the c-axis of the lattice for both minerals using the formula c = −1.8603 nMg + 17.061 for calcite, where nMg is the molar fraction of Mg replacing Ca, and c = 16.0032 + 0.8632Δn_Ca for dolomite, with Δn_Ca being the excess Ca in its B site. The one-step procedure was implemented into the Topas software and tested on twenty-two carbonate rock samples from diverse geological settings, considered analogues to petroleum system lithotypes of the pre-evaporite deposits of Southeastern Brazil. The case study spans over a wide range of calcite and dolomite compositions: up to 0.287 apfu Mg in magnesian calcite, and Ca in excess of up to 0.25 apfu in non-stoichiometric dolomite, which are maximum substitutions the formulas support. The method overcomes the limitations for the quantification of minerals by stoichiometry based on whole-rock chemical analysis for complex mineralogy and can be employed for multiple generations of either carbonate. It returns the mineral quantification with unprecedented detailing of the carbonates’ composition, which compares very well to spot analysis (both SEM-EDS and EMPA) if those cover the full range of compositions. The conciliation of the quantification results based on the XRD is also excellent against chemical analysis, thermogravimetry, and carbon elemental analysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fundamentals and Frontiers in Mineralogy)

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3818 KiB

Open AccessReview

Formation and Aggregation of Gold (Electrum) Nanoparticles in Epithermal Ores

by James A. Saunders and Michelle Burke

Minerals 2017, 7(9), 163; https://doi.org/10.3390/min7090163 - 8 Sep 2017

Cited by 51 | Viewed by 11830

Abstract

Here, we review the concept that nanoparticles and colloids may have played a significant role in forming some types of hydrothermal ores deposits, particularly epithermal. This concept was first proposed almost a century ago but the development of new analytical technologies, lab experiments, [...] Read more.

Here, we review the concept that nanoparticles and colloids may have played a significant role in forming some types of hydrothermal ores deposits, particularly epithermal. This concept was first proposed almost a century ago but the development of new analytical technologies, lab experiments, and the discovery of new epithermal deposits where nanoparticles are evident have added credence to the “gold colloid theory”. Nanoparticles are defined to have at least one dimension <10⁻⁷ m, and may have different chemical and physical properties than the bulk solids. Colloids are typically <10⁻⁶ m in diameter and have the added characteristic that they are dispersed in another medium. In epithermal ore-forming solutions, gold or electrum nanoparticles nucleate from supersaturated hydrothermal solutions, and thus this is a “far-from-equilibrium” process. In some cases, gold nanoparticles may simply play a transitory role of aggregating to form much coarser-grained crystals, where all of the evidence of nanoparticles precursor phases is not preserved. However, in some epithermal ores, silica nanoparticles also formed, and their co-deposition with gold (electrum) nanoparticles preserved the gold aggregation features as self-organized “fractal” dendrites. Here, we review existing the data on gold and electrum nanoparticles in epithermal ores, present images of electrum nanoparticles and their aggregates, and discuss the significance of gold nanoparticles formation and aggregation in helping to produce some of the highest-grade gold ores in the world. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geochemistry and Mineralogy of Hydrothermal Metallic Mineral Deposits)

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Open AccessArticle

Mineralogy and Processing of Hydrothermal Vein Quartz from Hengche, Hubei Province (China)

by Min Lin, Zhenyu Pei and Shaomin Lei

Minerals 2017, 7(9), 161; https://doi.org/10.3390/min7090161 - 2 Sep 2017

Cited by 32 | Viewed by 9311

Abstract

Quartz occurs in many geological materials, and is used in numerous industrial fields as a raw material. Mineralogy and the processing of hydrothermal quartz were studied by optical microscope, electron probe microanalysis, scanning electron microscope, inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry, and inductively coupled [...] Read more.

Quartz occurs in many geological materials, and is used in numerous industrial fields as a raw material. Mineralogy and the processing of hydrothermal quartz were studied by optical microscope, electron probe microanalysis, scanning electron microscope, inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry, and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer. A combination of the geological occurrence of the quartz deposit, mineralogical studies, and the processing technologies of the hydrothermal quartz was accomplished. The results show that impurities within the quartz mainly include muscovite, hematite, apatite, and secondary fluid inclusions. The main chemical impurities are Al (353 μg·g⁻¹), K (118 μg·g⁻¹), Fe (61.2 μg·g⁻¹), P (15.5 μg·g⁻¹), Na (13.4 μg·g⁻¹), Mg (11.8 μg·g⁻¹), Ti (8.31 μg·g⁻¹), and B (10.8 μg·g⁻¹). Based on these results, a combined process consisting of calcination and fluoride-free pressure acid leaching was established to effectively decompose and dissolve the quartz, and remove gangue minerals and fluid inclusions. The calcination process not only removed volatile components; it also destroyed the crystal structure of gangue minerals and enhanced their release probabilities. The calcination process has a positive influence on the removal of impurity elements by the fluoride-free pressure acid leaching process. A total of 85.2 wt % and 84.0 wt % of impurity elements was removed using the leaching systems of HCl-NH₄Cl and H₂SO₄-NH₄Cl, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mineralogy of Quartz and Silica Minerals)

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1391 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Density Functional Theory Study on the Effect of Lattice Impurities on the Electronic Structures and Reactivity of Fluorite

by Wei Jiang, Zhiyong Gao, Wei Sun, Jiande Gao and Yuehua Hu

Minerals 2017, 7(9), 160; https://doi.org/10.3390/min7090160 - 1 Sep 2017

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4985

Abstract

Fluorite (CaF2), a halogen elemental mineral, always co-exists with other minerals. The Ca element in fluorite is often replaced by rare earth elements (REEs), such as cerium (Ce) and yttrium (Y). In this work, the electronic structures of fluorite crystals containing REE (Ce, [...] Read more.

Fluorite (CaF2), a halogen elemental mineral, always co-exists with other minerals. The Ca element in fluorite is often replaced by rare earth elements (REEs), such as cerium (Ce) and yttrium (Y). In this work, the electronic structures of fluorite crystals containing REE (Ce, Th, U, and Y) impurities were studied by density functional theory (DFT). The calculated results showed that the presence of impurities increased the lattice parameter of fluorite. The impurities caused the Fermi level to shift towards the high energy direction, making the fluorite accept electrons more easily. The impurities except Y led to the occurrence of an impurities state in the valence band. The Mullinken population values of F–REE bonds were larger than that of F–Ca and F–F bonds, and F–Y bonds had the largest population value. Analysis of the frontier molecular orbital showed that the impurities contributed greatly to the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO). The interaction between oleic acid and impurities-bearing fluorite were discussed. The results suggested that the incorporation of impurities would enhanced the reactivity of fluorite with oleic acid. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Computational Geochemistry)

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3479 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Flotation Behavior of Different Colored Fluorites Using Sodium Oleate as a Collector

by Renji Zheng, Zijie Ren, Huimin Gao and Yupeng Qian

Minerals 2017, 7(9), 159; https://doi.org/10.3390/min7090159 - 1 Sep 2017

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 5969

Abstract

Using sodium oleate (NaOL) as a collector, the flotation characteristics of natural colorless fluorite (CF), green fluorite (GF), and purple fluorite (PF) were investigated through micro-flotation tests, collector adsorption measurements, and surface tension measurement. The micro-flotation results indicated that CF had a much [...] Read more.

Using sodium oleate (NaOL) as a collector, the flotation characteristics of natural colorless fluorite (CF), green fluorite (GF), and purple fluorite (PF) were investigated through micro-flotation tests, collector adsorption measurements, and surface tension measurement. The micro-flotation results indicated that CF had a much better flotation response than both GF and PF, and had higher floatation recovery. The results demonstrated a considerable discrepancy in the interfacial properties between colorless and colored fluorite, even though all the samples were obtained from the same deposit, holding a similar high purity of CaF₂. The adsorption capacity of CF, GF, and PF for NaOL was 2.27, 4.18, and 8.21 × 10⁻⁶ mol/g under neutral conditions, respectively. Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) measurements revealed that the carboxyl groups of NaOL reacted with Ca sites on the surface of fluorites by chemical adsorption. From the zeta potential analyses, PF exhibited a lower positive potential than CF and GF, mainly due to its surface carbonation. In the presence of NaOL, the surface potential of fluorites changed from positive to negative because the NaOL collector had been adsorbed onto the mineral surface and changed their surface potential, which was consistent with the flotation results at different pH values. We found that the floatability of the fluorite samples was influenced by their surface roughness, measured by an atomic force microscope (AFM) and scanning electron microscope (SEM). PF can be floated with adding more reagent dosage than CF and GF to compensate for its higher surface roughness. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flotation Chemistry)

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3793 KiB

Open AccessReview

In Situ Atomic Force Microscopy Studies on Nucleation and Self-Assembly of Biogenic and Bio-Inspired Materials

by Cheng Zeng, Caitlin Vitale-Sullivan and Xiang Ma

Minerals 2017, 7(9), 158; https://doi.org/10.3390/min7090158 - 31 Aug 2017

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 10836

Abstract

Through billions of years of evolution, nature has been able to create highly sophisticated and ordered structures in living systems, including cells, cellular components and viruses. The formation of these structures involves nucleation and self-assembly, which are fundamental physical processes associated with the [...] Read more.

Through billions of years of evolution, nature has been able to create highly sophisticated and ordered structures in living systems, including cells, cellular components and viruses. The formation of these structures involves nucleation and self-assembly, which are fundamental physical processes associated with the formation of any ordered structure. It is important to understand how biogenic materials self-assemble into functional and highly ordered structures in order to determine the mechanisms of biological systems, as well as design and produce new classes of materials which are inspired by nature but equipped with better physiochemical properties for our purposes. An ideal tool for the study of nucleation and self-assembly is in situ atomic force microscopy (AFM), which has been widely used in this field and further developed for different applications in recent years. The main aim of this work is to review the latest contributions that have been reported on studies of nucleation and self-assembly of biogenic and bio-inspired materials using in situ AFM. We will address this topic by introducing the background of AFM, and discussing recent in situ AFM studies on nucleation and self-assembly of soft biogenic, soft bioinspired and hard materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nucleation of Minerals: Precursors, Intermediates and Their Use in Materials Chemistry)

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7204 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Role of Water Glass in the Flotation Separation of Fine Fluorite from Fine Quartz

by Guofan Zhang, Yawen Gao, Wei Chen and Dezhi Liu

Minerals 2017, 7(9), 157; https://doi.org/10.3390/min7090157 - 28 Aug 2017

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 5853

Abstract

Fluorite is the principal mineral of fluorine and usually coexists with quartz in deposits. The removal of fine quartz in fluorite concentrate is the main problem in fluorite flotation. In this study, the flotation tests on fluorite, quartz and a weight equivalent mixture [...] Read more.

Fluorite is the principal mineral of fluorine and usually coexists with quartz in deposits. The removal of fine quartz in fluorite concentrate is the main problem in fluorite flotation. In this study, the flotation tests on fluorite, quartz and a weight equivalent mixture (all less than 10 μm) using water glass (with different modulus) as depressants and sodium oleate as collector were conducted. The mechanism of fine quartz entering the fluorite concentrate was investigated through optional observations and rheology measurements on the flotation pulp. The particle interactions between fine fluorite and quartz under flotation-related conditions were analyzed through zeta potential measurements and DLVO calculations. The results revealed that there existed strong hetero-coagulation between fluorite and quartz particles in the flotation pulp, which could be the main reason for the quartz entering the fluorite concentrate in the flotation process. Water glass with higher modulus could eliminate the hetero-coagulation more totally but inevitably influences the flotability of fluorite. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Flotation Chemistry)

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9131 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Bioelectrochemical Changes during the Early Stages of Chalcopyrite Interaction with Acidithiobacillus Thiooxidans and Leptospirillum sp.

by Irene López-Cázares, O. Araceli Patrón-Soberano and J. Viridiana García-Meza

Minerals 2017, 7(9), 156; https://doi.org/10.3390/min7090156 - 28 Aug 2017

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3949

Abstract

A bioelectrochemical study of charge transfer in the biofilm–chalcopyrite interface was performed to investigate the effect of surficial reduced sulfur species (RSS), in the form of non-stochiometric compounds or polysulfides (S_n²⁻) and elemental sulfur (S⁰) on a biofilm [...] Read more.

A bioelectrochemical study of charge transfer in the biofilm–chalcopyrite interface was performed to investigate the effect of surficial reduced sulfur species (RSS), in the form of non-stochiometric compounds or polysulfides (S_n²⁻) and elemental sulfur (S⁰) on a biofilm structure, during the earliest stages (1, 12 and 24 h) of chalcopyrite biooxidation by Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans alone and adding Leptospirillum sp. The surface of massive chalcopyrite electrodes was exposed to the bacteria, which were analyzed electrochemically, spectroscopically, and microscopically. At the studied earlier times, charge transfer and significant differences in the biofilm structure were detected, depending on the presence of Leptospirillum sp. acting on A. thiooxidans biofilms. Such differences were a consequence of a continuous chalcopyrite pitting and promoting changes in biofilm hydrophobicity. A. thiooxidans modifies the reactive properties of RSS and favors an acidic dissolution, which shifts into ferric dissolution when Leptospirillum sp. is present. A. thiooxidans allows H⁺ and Fe³⁺ diffusion, and Leptospirillum sp. enables to surpass the charge transfer (reactivity) barrier between the mineral interface and the ions. The observed changes of hydrophobicity on the interface are associated to ions and electrons activity and transfer. Finally, a model of S⁰ biooxidation by A. thiooxidans alone or with Leptospirillum sp. is proposed. Full article

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11127 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Investigation of Biotite-Rich Schist Reacting with B-Bearing Fluids at Upper Crustal Conditions and Correlated Tourmaline Formation

by Andrea Orlando, Giovanni Ruggieri, Laura Chiarantini, Giordano Montegrossi and Valentina Rimondi

Minerals 2017, 7(9), 155; https://doi.org/10.3390/min7090155 - 28 Aug 2017

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 6177

Abstract

Fluid–rock interaction experiments between a biotite-rich schist (from Mt. Calamita Formation, Elba Island, Italy) and B-bearing aqueous fluids were carried out at 500–600 °C and 100–130 MPa. The experiments have been carried out in order to reproduce the reaction, which would have produced [...] Read more.

Fluid–rock interaction experiments between a biotite-rich schist (from Mt. Calamita Formation, Elba Island, Italy) and B-bearing aqueous fluids were carried out at 500–600 °C and 100–130 MPa. The experiments have been carried out in order to reproduce the reaction, which would have produced tourmalinisation of the biotite schist, supposedly by circulation of magmatic fluids issued from leucogranitic dykes. The reacting fluids were either NaCl-free or NaCl-bearing (20 wt %) aqueous solutions, with variable concentration of H₃BO₃ (0.01–3.2 M). The experimental results show that tourmaline (belonging to the alkali group) crystallise under high-temperature and upper crustal conditions (500–600 °C, 100–130 MPa) when H₃BO₃ concentration in the system is greater than 1.6 M. The composition of tourmaline is either dravitic (Mg-rich) or schorlitic (Fe-rich), depending if an NaCl-bearing or NaCl-free aqueous solution is used. In the first case, a significant amount of Fe released from biotite dissolution remains in the Cl-rich solution resulting from the experiment. By contrast, when pure water is used, Na/K exchange in feldspars makes Na available for tourmaline crystallisation. The high concentration of Fe in the residual fluid has an important metallogenic implication because it indicates that the interaction between the saline B-rich fluid of magmatic derivation and biotite-rich schists, besides producing tourmalinisation, is capable of mobilising significant amounts of Fe. This process could have produced, in part or totally, the Fe deposits located close to the quartz–tourmaline veins and metasomatic bodies of the Mt. Calamita Formation. Moreover, the super-hot reservoir that likely occurs in the deepest part of the Larderello–Travale geothermal field would also be the site of an extensive reaction between the B-rich fluid and biotite-bearing rocks producing tourmaline. Thus, tourmaline occurrence can be a useful guide during deep drilling toward a super-hot reservoir. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue High Pressure Minerals)

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8780 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optical Observations and Geochemical Data in Deep-Sea Hexa- and Octo-Coralla Specimens

by Claire Rollion-Bard, Jean-Pierre Cuif and Dominique Blamart

Minerals 2017, 7(9), 154; https://doi.org/10.3390/min7090154 - 25 Aug 2017

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5010

Abstract

Coral skeletons are built by Ca-carbonate (calcite or aragonite) crystals that exhibit distinct morphological patterns and specific spatial arrangements that constitute skeletal microstructures. Additionally, the long-standing recognition that distinct coral species growing in similar conditions are able to record environmental changes with species-specific [...] Read more.

Coral skeletons are built by Ca-carbonate (calcite or aragonite) crystals that exhibit distinct morphological patterns and specific spatial arrangements that constitute skeletal microstructures. Additionally, the long-standing recognition that distinct coral species growing in similar conditions are able to record environmental changes with species-specific responses provides convincing evidence that, beyond the thermodynamic rules for chemical precipitation, a biological influence is at work during the crystallization process. Through several series of comparative structural and geochemical (elemental and isotopic) data, this paper aims to firmly establish the specific properties of the distinct major taxonomic units that are commonly gathered as deep-water “corals” in current literature. Moreover, taking advantage of recent micrometric and infra-micrometric observations, attention is drawn to the remarkable similarity of the calcareous material observed at the nanoscale. These observations suggest a common biomineralization model in which mineralogical criteria are not the leading factors for the interpretation of the geochemical measurements. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Organo-Mineral Interactions)

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4373 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Study on the Effect of Pretreatment with High-Voltage Electrical Pulses on Mineral Liberation and Separation of Magnetite Ore

by Peng Gao, Shuai Yuan, Yuexin Han, Yanjun Li and Hongyun Chen

Minerals 2017, 7(9), 153; https://doi.org/10.3390/min7090153 - 24 Aug 2017

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 6654

Abstract

High-voltage electrical pulses (HVEP) technology was applied in grinding of a magnetite ore as a comminution pretreatment. The effect of HVEP pretreatment on grindability, liberation and separation performance of a magnetite ore was investigated by a systematic experimental study. The results showed that [...] Read more.

High-voltage electrical pulses (HVEP) technology was applied in grinding of a magnetite ore as a comminution pretreatment. The effect of HVEP pretreatment on grindability, liberation and separation performance of a magnetite ore was investigated by a systematic experimental study. The results showed that the pretreatment of high-voltage electrical pulses created some intergranular microcracks inside the ore, reduced the mechanical strength and improved liberation. This gave the additional advantage of further breakage,thereby reducing the energy consumption and grinding time. In addition, the HVEP pretreatment before grinding was potentially beneficial in the recovery of the liberated minerals in the subsequent magnetic separation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Mineral Processing Technologies)

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2189 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Kinetics of Rare Earth and Aluminum Leaching from Kaolin

by Xiuchuan Ran, Zijie Ren, Huimin Gao, Renji Zheng and Junxun Jin

Minerals 2017, 7(9), 152; https://doi.org/10.3390/min7090152 - 24 Aug 2017

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 5538

Abstract

In this paper, magnesium sulfate was used as a lixiviant to recover rare earth from kaolin. The effects of column leaching conditions, such as the concentration of magnesium sulfate, liquid/solid ratio, flow rate, and pH of the magnesium sulfate solution on the leaching [...] Read more.

In this paper, magnesium sulfate was used as a lixiviant to recover rare earth from kaolin. The effects of column leaching conditions, such as the concentration of magnesium sulfate, liquid/solid ratio, flow rate, and pH of the magnesium sulfate solution on the leaching efficiency of rare earth and aluminum, were investigated. In addition, the leaching kinetics of rare earth and aluminum were analyzed based on the magnesium concentration. The results showed that the optimal leaching conditions 0.2 mol/L magnesium sulfate solution with no pH adjustment, 1.2:1 for the liquid/solid ratio, and at a flow rate of 0.5 mL/min led to an 89% rare earth leaching efficiency and an 81% aluminum leaching efficiency. The aluminum leaching efficiency by magnesium sulfate was 7% less than that by ammonium sulfate. Moreover, the equilibrium time for rare earth was 33 min shorter than aluminum, which is of benefit to reduce the leaching time of aluminum. The leaching kinetic data fitted an unreacted shrinking-core model. Semi-empirical equations based on the apparent rate constant and magnesium concentration of rare earth and aluminum were established, and the reaction orders for rare earth and aluminum were determined to be 1.69 and 1.61, respectively. The results of this study could help to better understand and optimize the leaching process by magnesium sulfate. Full article

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