A Comprehensive Survey on Fault Tolerance in Multiphase AC Drives, Part 1: General Overview Considering Multiple Fault Types
Abstract
:1. Introduction
References | Control Unit | Current Sensor | Dc Capacitor | Dc Volt. Sensor | Dc Volt. Excess | Dc Volt. Shortage | High-res. Connects. | Machine Cooling | Magnet Demag. | Mechanical | Resolver/Encoder | Stator SC | Supply OC/SC | Switch SC | Switch/Phase OC |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[56] | DT | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
[57] | - | D | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | D |
[58] | - | DT | - | DT | - | - | - | - | - | - | DT | - | - | - | DT |
[59] | - | - | - | - | - | - | D | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
[60] | - | - | - | - | - | - | D | D | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
[61] | - | - | - | - | - | - | D | - | - | - | - | D | - | - | - |
[62] | - | - | - | - | - | - | D | - | - | D | - | - | - | - | D |
[63,64] | - | - | - | - | - | - | D | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | D |
[65,66,67] | - | - | - | - | - | - | DT | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
[68] | - | - | - | - | - | - | DT | - | DT | - | - | - | - | - | - |
[69] | - | - | - | - | - | - | DT | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | DT |
[70,71,72,73] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | D | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
[74,75,76,77,78] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | DT | - | - | - | - | - | - |
[79,80,81,82,83,84,85] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | D | - | - | - | - | - |
[86,87] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | DT | - | - | - | - |
[88,89,90,91,92] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | D | - | - | - |
[93,94,95,96,97,98] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | DT | - | - | - |
[99] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | DT | - | DT | - |
[100] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | DT | - | - | DT |
[101] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | DT | - | - | T |
[102] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | D | DT |
[103] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | DT | DT |
[14,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,114,115] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | D |
[116,117,118,119,120,121,122,123,124,125,126] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | DT |
[127] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | T | - | - | - | DT |
[128] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | T | - | - | DT |
[129] | - | - | T | - | - | T | - | - | T | - | - | T | - | - | - |
[130] | - | - | T | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | T | T | - | T | T |
[27] | - | - | T | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | T | - | T | T |
[131] | - | - | - | - | T | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
[132] | - | - | - | - | T | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | T |
[7,8,9,133,134,135,136,137,138,139,140,141,142,143,144,145,146,147,148,149,150,151,152,153,154,155,156,157,158,159,160] | - | - | - | - | - | T | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
[161] | - | - | - | - | - | T | - | - | - | - | T | - | - | - | T |
[162,163,164,165,166,167] | - | - | - | - | - | T | - | - | - | - | - | T | - | - | T |
[168] | - | - | - | - | - | T | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | T | - |
[169,170,171,172,173,174] | - | - | - | - | - | T | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | T |
[175] | - | - | - | - | - | - | T | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
[176,177] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | T | - | - | T | - | - | - |
[178] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | T | - | - | T | - | - | T |
[179,180] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | T | - | - | - | - | - |
[181,182,183,184,185,186,187,188,189,190,191,192,193,194,195,196,197,198,199,200,201,202,203,204,205,206,207,208] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | T | - | - | - | - |
[209] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | T | T | - | - | - |
[210,211,212] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | T | T | - | - | T |
[213,214,215,216,217,218,219] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | T | - | - | - | T |
[220,221,222,223,224,225,226,227,228,229,230,231,232,233,234,235,236,237,238] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | T | - | - | - |
[239] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | T | T | T | T |
[240,241,242,243] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | T | - | T | - |
[244,245,246,247] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | T | - | T | T |
[28,248,249,250,251,252,253,254,255,256,257,258,259,260,261,262,263,264,265,266,267,268,269,270,271,272] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | T | - | - | T |
[273] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | T | - |
[13,274,275,276,277] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | T | T |
[15,22,278,279,280,281,282,283,284,285,286,287,288,289,290,291,292,293,294,295,296,297,298,299,300,301,302,303,304,305,306,307,308,309,310,311,312,313,314,315,316,317,318,319,320,321,322,323,324,325,326,327,328,329,330,331,332,333,334,335,336,337,338,339,340,341,342,343,344,345,346,347,348,349,350,351,352,353,354,355,356,357,358,359,360,361,362,363,364,365,366,367,368,369,370,371,372,373,374,375,376,377,378,379,380,381,382,383,384,385,386,387,388,389,390,391,392,393,394,395,396,397,398,399,400,401,402,403,404,405,406,407,408,409,410,411,412,413,414,415,416,417,418,419,420,421,422,423,424,425,426,427,428,429,430,431,432,433,434,435,436,437,438,439,440,441,442,443,444,445,446,447,448,449,450,451] | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | T |
Section | Section 12.5 | Section 12.4 | Section 12.1 | Section 12.3 | Section 9 | Section 8 | Section 4 | Section 10 | Section 11 | Section 12.6 | Section 7 | Section 5 | Section 12.2 | Section 6 | Part 2 |
Application | References |
---|---|
Aerospace | [13,14,25,26,52,53,93,98,99,100,101,130,161,167,211,212,226,227,228,229,230,231,236,237,238,240,244,246,260,265,266,267,270,272,288,303,304,305,306,307,330,391,452] |
Automotive vehicles | [3,16,22,27,28,48,56,91,92,94,117,119,178,181,182,209,217,219,220,221,243,248,249,250,264,282,358,361,363,364,365,366,367,368,386,453] |
Elevator | [439] |
Marine energy | [57,291,295,371] |
Metal industry | [269,345] |
Ships | [203,271,332,333,417,420,440,454] |
Wind energy | [24,54,123,287,336,340,354,409,455] |
Main Topic | References |
---|---|
General | [1,2,29,30,31,32,33] |
Control and PWM | [4,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45] |
Converter topologies | [4,43,46,52] |
Fault tolerance | [24,45,47] |
Machine design | [34,55] |
Transportation | [3,16,36,48,49,50,51,52,53] |
Wind energy | [24,54] |
2. Main Fault Types and Literature Classification according to Studied Topics
3. Types of Multiphase Drives and Vector Space Decomposition (VSD)
3.1. Types of Multiphase Machines and Stator Phase Configurations
3.1.1. Stator Phase Splitting
- If “no phase splitting” is applied, there is electrical connection between all phases (e.g., one star with one neutral point), and the stator can be considered a single n-phase winding;
- With “single-phase splitting”, there is no connection between any stator phases (e.g., open-end winding topologies), and the stator can be seen as n single-phase windings;
- With “l-phase splitting”, a stator winding of composite phase number n is composed of sets of l phases (), electrically isolated from each other. For example, stars with separate neutral points. It is common to select , given the widely spread knowledge and technology for three-phase systems [24,131,132,305,353]. Nevertheless, e.g., is sometimes chosen [303,405,421,431,432,469].
3.1.2. Stator Winding Spatial Arrangements (WSAs)
3.1.2.1. Symmetrical WSA
3.1.2.2. No-Phase-Shift WSA
3.1.2.3. Asymmetrical WSA
3.1.2.4. Multisector WSA
3.1.2.5. Overlapping and Non-Overlapping Windings
3.1.3. Stator Phase Connections
3.1.4. Literature Classification according to Machine Type and Stator Configuration
n | WSA | FSCW | Splitting | Rotor | References | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
4 | Sym. | No | No | 0 | IM | [310] |
4 | Sym. | Yes | 1-ph. | − | PMSM | [163,165,228,239,266] |
4 | Sym. | Yes | No | 0 | PMSM | [232] |
5 | Sym. | No | 1-ph. | − | IM | [193,194,362,406,451] |
5 | Sym. | No | 1-ph. | − | PMSM | [273,403] |
5 | Sym. | No | No | 0 | IM | [9,41,69,114,115,116,138,142,150,151,152,153,189,190,202,218,253,310,317,318,319,320,321,322,323,324,325,326,327,328,329,410,411,427,428,429] |
5 | Sym. | No | No | 0 | PMaSynRM | [84,104,309,404,483] |
5 | Sym. | No | No | 0 | WFSM | [416] |
5 | Sym. | No | No | 1 | IM | [410,411,412,428] |
5 | Sym. | No | No | 1 | WFSM | [416] |
5 | Sym. | No | No | − | PMaSynRM | [423] |
5 | Sym. | No | No | 0 | PMSM | [8,68,76,77,78,86,105,106,136,141,200,201,208,216,217,249,250,251,252,333,383,384,385,386,387,388,389,390,391,392,393,394,395,396,400,402,414,440,448] |
5 | Sym. | No | No | 1 | PMSM | [141,389,390] |
5 | Sym. | No | No | 2 | PMSM | [141,390] |
5 | Sym. | Yes | 1-ph. | − | PMSM | [89,90,91,95,127,130,133,162,163,164,187,226,227,233,234,241,248,263,264,267,268,304,363,365,444,445] |
5 | Sym. | Yes | 1-ph. | − | Hybrid excit. | [94] |
5 | Sym. | Yes | No | 0 | PMSM | [59,92,102,111,117,118,119,166,219,232,254,255,256,257,262,357,358,359,360,361,366,367,379,380,381,397,398,446,447] |
5 | Sym. | Yes | − | − | PMSM | [209,297,442] |
5 | Sym. | − | No | 0 | PMSM | [57,107,108,110,175,181,186,369,370,371] |
5 | Sym. | − | No | 0 | RL load | [149,155,159] |
5 | Sym. | − | No | 0 | − | [148] |
5 | Sym. | − | − | − | PMSM | [182,291,295] |
6 | Asym. | No | 1-ph. | − | IM | [415] |
6 | Asym. | No | 3-ph. | 0 | IM | [80,81,82,83,112,113,126,131,132,143,144,145,146,156,157,158,161,173,202,203,204,205,206,207,261,310,311,312,334,335,336,337,338,339,340,341,342,343,433,434,435,436] |
6 | Asym. | No | 3-ph. | 0 | PMSM | [28,58,63,64,65,70,71,72,73,74,75,87,88,103,109,134,135,137,154,170,171,176,177,179,276,277,278,279,280,281,282,283,284,285,286,287,288] |
6 | Asym. | No | 3-ph. | 0 | SynRM | [247] |
6 | Asym. | No | 3-ph. | 0 | WFSM | [15,417,454] |
6 | Asym. | No | No | 0 | IM | [144,213,214,310,311,312,334,341,342,343,382,433,434,435,437,438] |
6 | Asym. | No | No | 0 | PMSM | [137,170,171,313,314,315,356] |
6 | Asym. | No | No | Other | PMSM | [372] |
6 | Asym. | No | Other | Other | IM | [413] |
6 | Asym. | No | − | − | PMSM | [368] |
6 | Asym. | Yes | 1-ph. | − | PMSM | [220] |
6 | Asym. | Yes | 3-ph. | 0 | PMSM | [215,258,259,419] |
6 | Asym. | Yes | No | 0 | PMSM | [351] |
6 | Asym. | − | 3-ph. | 0 | PMSM | [121,122,125,139,191,192,299,300] |
6 | Asym. | − | No | 0 | PMSM | [347,348,349] |
6 | Multisec. | No | 3-ph. | 0 | IM | [261,418,436] |
6 | Multisec. | No | 3-ph. | 0 | PMSM | [179,230,305] |
6 | Multisec. | No | 3-ph. | 0 | SynRM | [247,450] |
6 | Multisec. | No | − | − | PMSM | [425] |
6 | Multisec. | Yes | 3-ph. | 0 | PMSM | [56,215,246,258,259,346] |
6 | Multisec. | Yes | No | 0 | PMSM | [346] |
6 | No-ph. | No | 3-ph. | 0 | IM | [312,424] |
6 | No-ph. | No | 3-ph. | 0 | PMSM | [169,316] |
6 | No-ph. | No | No | 0 | IM | [312] |
6 | No-ph. | − | No | 0 | PMSM | [302] |
6 | Sym. | No | 1-ph. | − | IM | [271] |
6 | Sym. | No | 3-ph. | 0 | IM | [62,79,82,202,312,344,377,407,408] |
6 | Sym. | No | 3-ph. | 0 | SynRM | [308] |
6 | Sym. | No | 3-ph. | 2 | IM | [344,408] |
6 | Sym. | No | No | 0 | IM | [120,123,172,261,275,292,312,344,377,436] |
6 | Sym. | No | No | 0 | PMSM | [331] |
6 | Sym. | No | No | 0 | SynRM | [308] |
6 | Sym. | No | No | 1 | IM | [344,408] |
6 | Sym. | No | Other | Other | PMSM | [13,14,345] |
6 | Sym. | No | − | 0 | IM | [293,294] |
6 | Sym. | No | − | − | PMSM | [297] |
6 | Sym. | Yes | 1-ph. | − | PMSM | [93,96,99,128,163,210,211,212,223,240,265] |
6 | Sym. | Yes | 3-ph. | 0 | PMSM | [100,101,215,222,229,230,258,259,260,265,419] |
6 | Sym. | Yes | No | 0 | PMSM | [101,232,330] |
6 | Sym. | Yes | − | − | Hybrid excit. | [178] |
6 | Sym. | Yes | − | − | PMSM | [221,225,231,441] |
6 | Sym. | − | 1-ph. | − | PMSM | [13] |
n | WSA | FSCW | Splitting | Rotor | References | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
7 | Sym. | No | No | 0 | IM | [66,67,160,183,184,185,197,296,310,350] |
7 | Sym. | No | No | 0 | PMSM | [174,289,375,376] |
9 | Asym. | No | 3-ph. | 0 | IM | [353,354] |
9 | Asym. | No | 3-ph. | 0 | PMSM | [22,137] |
9 | Asym. | No | 3-ph. | 0 | WFSM | [454] |
9 | Asym. | No | No | 0 | PMSM | [137,301] |
9 | Asym. | No | No | Other | IM | [355,422,430] |
9 | Asym. | No | Other | Other | PMSM | [301] |
9 | Multisec. | No | 3-ph. | 0 | PMaSynRM | [97,98,129,167,224,235,236,237,238,242,243,244,245,270] |
9 | Multisec. | No | 3-ph. | 0 | PMSM | [61,124,180,195,196,443] |
9 | Multisec. | No | 3-ph. | 1 | PMaSynRM | [270] |
9 | Multisec. | No | No | 0 | PMaSynRM | [374] |
9 | Multisec. | Yes | 3-ph. | 0 | PMSM | [409] |
9 | Sym. | No | 1-ph. | − | IM | [274] |
9 | Sym. | No | 3-ph. | 0 | IM | [140,269,352] |
9 | Sym. | No | 3-ph. | 0 | PMSM | [439] |
9 | Sym. | No | No | 0 | IM | [60,290,298,332,352,449] |
9 | Sym. | No | No | 0 | PMSM | [198,199] |
9 | Sym. | No | − | − | PMSM | [188] |
9 | Sym. | Yes | 3-ph. | 0 | PMSM | [147] |
10 | Asym. | No | No | Other | IM | [421,431,432] |
10 | Sym. | Yes | 1-ph. | − | PMSM | [272] |
10 | − | No | 5-ph. | 0 | IM | [405] |
11 | Sym. | No | No | 0 | IM | [399] |
12 | Asym. | No | 3-ph. | 0 | IM | [373,378,401] |
12 | Asym. | No | 6-ph. | 0 | IM | [373] |
12 | Asym. | No | No | 0 | IM | [373] |
12 | Asym. | Yes | 3-ph. | 0 | PMSM | [420] |
12 | Multisec. | Yes | 3-ph. | 0 | PMSM | [168] |
12 | Multisec. | Yes | 2-ph. | Other | PMSM | [364] |
12 | Sym. | No | 3-ph. | 0 | PMSM | [143] |
12 | Sym. | No | 3-ph. | 4 | PMSM | [344] |
12 | Sym. | No | 4-ph. | 3 | PMSM | [344] |
12 | Sym. | No | 6-ph. | 2 | PMSM | [344,408] |
12 | Sym. | No | No | 0 | PMSM | [344,408] |
12 | Sym. | No | No | 1 | PMSM | [344,408] |
12 | Sym. | No | No | 5 | PMSM | [344] |
12 | Sym. | Yes | 3-ph. | 0 | PMSM | [306] |
12 | − | No | 6-ph. | Other | IM | [426] |
12 | − | No | No | Other | IM | [426] |
15 | Asym. | Yes | 5-ph. | 0 | PMSM | [303] |
18 | Multisec. | No | 3-ph. | 0 | PMSM | [307] |
24 | Multisec. | Yes | 3-ph. | 0 | PMSM | [27] |
3.2. Types of Multiphase Voltage-Source-Converter (VSC) Topologies
VSC Topology | Figure | n | References |
---|---|---|---|
Single n-phase HB diode rectifier | 8a * | 5 | [57,295,416] |
Single n-phase HB diode rectifier | 8a * | 6 | [454] |
Single n-phase HB VSC | 8a | − | Most of the others. |
Single (n+1)-phase HB VSC | 8b | 5 | [361] |
Single (n+)-phase HB VSC | 8c | 15 | [303] |
Single n-phase FB VSC for open-end windings | 8d | 5 | [91,94,128,133,193,248,263,267,362,363,403,406] |
Single n-phase FB VSC for open-end windings | 8d | 6 | [13,28,234,364,451] |
Single n-phase FB VSC for open-end windings | 8d | 10 | [272] |
Series dc-side connection of 3-phase HB diode rectifiers | 8e * | 6 | [417] |
Series dc-side connection of 3-phase HB diode rectifiers | 8e * | 9 | [454] |
Series dc-side connection of 3-phase HB VSCs | 8e | 9 | [409] |
Series dc-side connection of 1-phase FB VSCs | 8f | − | [54] |
Parallel 6-phase HB VSCs | 8g | 6 | [341] |
Series dc-side connection of parallel 3-phase HB VSCs | 8h | 6 | [340] |
Single n-phase T-type three-level VSC | 8i | 6 | [103,276,277,279] |
Multiple independent 3-phase HB VSCs | 9a | 6 | [56,173,215,222,230,265,305,436] |
Multiple independent 3-phase HB VSCs | 9a | 9 | [61,97,98,167,180,224,235,238,242,243,244,245,353,439,443] |
Multiple independent 3-phase HB VSCs | 9a | 12 | [168] |
Multiple independent 3-phase HB VSCs | 9a | 18 | [307] |
Multiple independent 3-phase HB VSCs | 9a | 24 | [27] |
Multiple independent (l+1)-phase HB VSCs | 9b | 6 | [346] |
Multiple independent (l+1)-phase HB VSCs | 9b | 9 | [236] |
Multiple independent 1-phase FB VSCs (H-bridges) | 9c | 4 | [165,228,266] |
Multiple independent 1-phase FB VSCs (H-bridges) | 9c | 5 | [89,95,130,162,164,233,264,304] |
Multiple independent 1-phase FB VSCs (H-bridges) | 9c | 6 | [93,96,99,210,211,212,223,227,240,265,271] |
Dual n-phase HB VSC for open-end windings | 9d | 5 | [194,273] |
Dual n-phase HB VSC for open-end windings | 9d | 6 | [220] |
Multiple independent parallel 3-phase HB VSCs | 9e | 6 | [339,340] |
3-phase HB VSC + 3 phase FB VSC | − | 6 | [413] |
5-phase HB VSC + 5-phase HB diode rectifier | − | 10 | [405] |
3.3. General Vector Space Decomposition (VSD) for Multiphase Drives
4. High-Resistance Connections
4.1. Causes of High-Resistance Connections
4.2. Detection of High-Resistance Connections
References | Machine | Current Control | Monitored Signals | x-y Current Ref. | Finds Fault Location | Needs Extra * Sensors | Diagnoses Other Faults | Smooth Postfault Torque | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | WSA | Rotor | ||||||||
Rossi et al. [65] | 6 | Asym. | SPMSM | - & x-y rotating PI | x-y voltage | 0 | No | No | No | Yes |
Zarri et al. [66,67] | Odd | Sym. | IM | - & x-y rotating PI | - & x-y voltage | 0 | Phase | No | No | Yes |
Tani et al. [68] | 5 | Sym. | SPMSM | - & x-y rotating PI | x-y voltage | 0 | Phase | No | Demagn. | Yes |
Salas-Biedma et al. [69] | 5 | Sym. | IM | - DTC | - & x-y current | − | Phase | No | Phase OC | Yes |
Farag et al. [62] | 6 | Sym. | IM | - & x-y current | - & x-y current | − | Phase | No | Ph. OC, bars | − |
Chen et al. [59] | 5 | Sym. | SPMSM | - rotating PI | - & x-y current | − | Phase | No | No | No |
Gonçalves et al. [63,64] | 6 | Asym. | SPMSM | - & x-y predictive | x-y current | Any | Phase | No | Phase OC | No |
Hu et al. [61] | 9 | 3-sect. | PMaSynRM | Rotating PI per star | Zero-seq. voltage | 0 | Set | Voltage | Turn SC | No |
Sun et al. [60] | Any | As./sym. | Any | - rot. PI & x-y PI | Phase dc voltage | dc | Phase | Voltage | Overheat. | No |
4.3. Tolerance to High-Resistance Connections
4.4. Concluding Remarks about High-Resistance Connections
5. Stator SC Faults
5.1. Causes of Stator SC Faults
5.2. Detection of Stator SC Faults
References | Machine | Types of Stator SCs | Identifies Location of SC | Monitored Signal/s | Extra Sensors * | Differs from | Robust to Other Faults | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | WSA | Rotor | FSCW | |||||||
Jiang et al. [100] | 6 | Sym. | SPMSM | Yes | Phase | Phase | Ph. current | No | No | Phase OC |
Jiang et al. [101] | 6 | Sym | SPMSM | Yes | Phase | Phase | Ph. current & neutral-point volt. | 1 volt. per star | No | No |
Haylock et al. [93] | 6 | Sym. | SPMSM | Yes | Turn | Phase | Ph. current | No | No | No |
Haylock et al. [99] | 6 | Sym. | SPMSM | Yes | Turn/ph. | Phase | Ph. current & on-state IGBT volt. | 1 volt. per IGBT | No | IGBT |
Gritli et al. [88] | 6 | Asym. | SPMSM | No | Turn | No | x-y volt./curr. 1st/3rd harmonics | No | Yes | No |
Immovilli et al. [89] | 5 | Sym. | SPMSM | Yes | Turn | Phase | Product - & x-y volt./current | No | Yes | Ecc., demag. |
Cui et al. [94] | 5 | Sym. | IPMSM | Yes | Turn | No | Torque estimation error | Torque | No | No |
Wu et al. [96] | 6 | Sym. | SPMSM | Yes | 1 turn | Ph., top/bot. | High-freq. ph. current (injected) | No | No | No |
Sen et al. [90,92] | 5 | Sym. | SPMSM | Yes | Turn | Phase | PWM ripple ph. current | Analog circuit | No | No |
Fan et al. [91] | 5 | Sym. | IPMSM | Yes | Turn | No | Zero-sequence current | No | Slightly | No |
Wang et al. [97] | 9 | 3-sect. | PMaSynRM | No | Turn | Sector | Instant. active/reactive power | Yes | Slightly | No |
Hu et al. [61] | 9 | 3-sect. | PMaSynRM | No | Turn | Phase | Zero-sequence voltage | 1 volt. per star | No | High-resist. |
5.3. Tolerance to Stator SC Faults
5.3.1. Drive Topologies
References | Method Description | n | WSA | Splitting | VSC Topology | Figure | SC Types |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mecrow et al. [93,99,240] | 1-phase SC | 6 | Sym. | 1-phase | Independent H bridges | 9c | Turn |
Arumugam et al. [223] | 1-phase SC & vertical winding | 6 | Sym. | 1-phase | Independent H bridges | 9c | Turn |
Wang et al. [97,98,129,243,245] | 3-phase SC | 9 | Multisec. | 3-phase | Independent 3-phase HBs | 9a | Turn |
Xu et al. [265] | 3-phase SC | 6 | Sym. | 3-phase | Independent 3-phase HBs | 9a | Phase |
Arumugam et al. [222] | 3-phase SC & vertical winding | 6 | Sym. | 3-phase | Independent 3-phase HBs | 9a | Turn |
Wang et al. [236] | 3-phase & neutral SC | 9 | Multisec. | 3-phase | Independent (l+1)-phase HBs | 9b | Turn |
Shi et al. [270] | Delta connections | 9 | Multisec. | 3-phase | Independent 3-phase HBs | 9a | Turn |
Various [94,248,263,267] | Zero-sequence control | 5 | Sym. | 1-phase | Single n-phase FB | 8d | Phase/turn |
Guo et al. [128] | Zero-sequence control | 6 | Sym. | 1-phase | Single n-phase FB | 8d | Phase |
Many | Zero-sequence control | − | − | 1-phase | Independent H bridges | 9c | Phase/turn |
Jiang et al. [101] | Extra leg to neutrals & 0-seq. control | 6 | Sym. | 3-phase | Single (n+1)-phase HB + 2 switches | 12 | Phase |
Si et al. [239] | Zero-sequence control | 4 | Sym. | 1-phase | Dual n-phase HB + 6 switches | 13 | Phase |
Mohammadpour and Parsa [252] | Opening shorted phase | 5 | Sym. | No | Single n-phase HB | 8a | Phase |
5.3.1.1. Topology Reconfiguration for Applying Terminal SC
5.3.1.2. Topologies Allowing Reduction in Shorted-Turn Flux Linkage by Uncontrolled Zero-Sequence Current
5.3.1.3. Topologies Allowing Increase in DOFs by Controlled Zero-Sequence Current
5.3.1.4. Topologies Allowing Opening of a Shorted Phase
5.3.2. Machine Design
5.3.2.1. General Guidelines
- On the one hand, the self-inductance should be large, to limit the current in the affected phases so as to prevent excessive SCL and magnet demagnetization [225,230]. It can be designed so that the phase current is equal to rated in case of SC across the phase winding (1-p.u. self-inductance) [93,266,272], or even lower [258]. If the machine has saliency, this is especially important for the self-inductance in the axis, aligned with the back-EMF [240]. Furthermore, for limiting the SC current it is also recommendable to take into account the worst-case scenario (highest current) of turn fault in the machine design, while assuming that at least external SC (see Section 5.3.1.1) is applied to the affected phase/s to reduce the effect [167];
- On the other hand, the mutual inductance between phases should be very small, so that the voltage and current induced by the faulty phases in the healthy ones is minimized (magnetic decoupling).
n | WSA | FSCW | Layers | Stator Slots | Coils/Phase | Rotor Poles | Splitting | Rotor Type | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
4 | Sym. | Yes | Single | 8 | 1 | 6 | 1-phase | SPMSM | [228,266] |
4 | Sym. | Yes | Single | 8 | 1 | 10 | 1-phase | SPMSM | [163,165] |
4 | Sym. | Yes | Single | 8 | 1 | 12 | 1-phase | SPMSM | [239] |
5 | Sym. | No | Double | 15 | 3 | 4 | No | IPMSM | [251,252] |
5 | Sym. | No | Single | 40 | 8 | 4 | No | IM | [253] |
5 | Sym. | Yes | Double | 10 | 2 | 8 | No | SPMSM | [234] |
5 | Sym. | Yes | Double | 20 | 4 | 18 | No | SPMSM | [254] |
5 | Sym. | Yes | Hybrid | 10 | 2 | 12 | 1-phase | IPMSM | [267] |
5 | Sym. | Yes | Hybrid | 40 | 4 | 44 | No | Dual-rotor SPMSM | [249] |
5 | Sym. | Yes | Single | - | - | 10 | 1-phase | SPMSM | [268] |
5 * | Sym. | Yes | Single | 10 | 1 | 8 | 1-phase | Dual-rotor SPMSM | [272] |
5 | Sym. | Yes | Single | 10 | 1 | 8 | 1-phase | SPMSM | [165,241] |
5 | Sym. | Yes | Single | 10 | 1 | 12 | 1-phase | SPMSM | [95,162,163,164,165] |
5 | Sym. | Yes | Single | 10 | 1 | 12 | No | SPMSM | [166] |
5 | Sym. | Yes | Single | 20 | 2 | 18 | 1-phase | IPMSM | [248,263] |
5 | Sym. | Yes | Single | 20 | 2 | 18 | 1-phase | SPMSM | [130,233] |
5 | Sym. | Yes | Single | 20 | 2 | 18 | No | Outer-rotor IPMSM | [250] |
5 | Sym. | Yes | Single | 20 | 2 | 18 | − | IPMSM | [209] |
5 | Sym. | Yes | Single | 20 | 2 | 22 | No | Outer-rotor IPMSM | [250,255,256,257] |
5 | Sym. | Yes | Single | 40 | 4 | 28 | 1-phase | SPMSM | [226,227] |
5 | Sym. | Yes | Single | 40 | 4 | 42 | 1-phase | Outer-rotor IPMSM | [264] |
6 | 2-sector | No | Double | 36 | 6 | 8 | 3-phase | SynRM | [247] |
6 | 2-sector | No | Double | 48 | 2 | 4 | 3-phase | IM | [261] |
6 | 2-sector | Yes | Double | 12 | 2 | 10 | 3-phase | IPMSM/SPMSM | [258,259] |
6 | 2-sector | Yes | Double | 18 | 3 | 12 | 3-phase | SPMSM | [246] |
6 | 2-sector | Yes | Single | 12 | 1 | 10 | 3-phase | IPMSM/SPMSM | [258] |
6 | 4-sector | No | Double | 36 | 6 | 8 | 3-phase | SynRM | [247] |
6 | 2-sector | No | Double | 48 | 2 | 4 | 3-phase | IM | [261] |
6 | 4-sector | No | Single | 24 | 2 | 8 | 3-phase | SPMSM | [230] |
6 | Asym. | No | Double | 18 | 3 | 8 | 3-phase | IPMSM | [28,176,177,477] |
6 | Asym. | No | Double | 36 | 2 | 8 | 3-phase | SynRM | [247] |
6 | Asym. | No | Double | 48 | 2 | 4 | 3-phase | IM | [261] |
6 | Asym. | Yes | Single | 24 | 2 | 22 | 1-phase | SPMSM | [96,220] |
6 | Asym. | Yes | Single | 24 | 2 | 22 | − | SPMSM | [225] |
6 | Asym./sym. | Yes | Single | 12 | 1 | 10 | 3-phase | IPMSM/SPMSM | [258] |
6 | Asym./sym. | Yes | Double | 12 | 2 | 10 | 3-phase | IPMSM/SPMSM | [258,259] |
6 | Sym. | No | Double | 48 | 2 | 4 | 1-phase | IM | [271] |
6 | Sym. | No | Double | 48 | 2 | 4 | 3-phase | IM | [261] |
6 | Sym. | Yes | Double | 24 | 4 | 28 | 3-phase | Outer-rotor SPMSM | [229] |
6 | Sym. | Yes | Single | 12 | 1 | 8 | 1-phase | SPMSM | [93,99,212,240] |
6 | Sym. | Yes | Single | 12 | 1 | 10 | 1-phase | SPMSM | [128,163,165,210,211,265] |
6 | Sym. | Yes | Single | 12 | 1 | 10 | 3-phase | SPMSM | [100,101,260] |
6 | Sym. | Yes | Single | 12 | 1 | 10 | 3-phase | SPMSM | [231] |
6 | Sym. | Yes | Single | 12 | 1 | 10 | − | Hybrid-excit. PMSM | [178] |
6 | Sym. | Yes | Single | 12 | 1 | 14 | 1-phase | SPMSM | [165,223] |
6 | Sym. | Yes | Single | 12 | 1 | 14 | 3-phase | SPMSM | [222] |
6 | Sym. | Yes | Single | 24 | 2 | 14 | − | IPMSM | [221] |
6 | Sym. | Yes | Single | 36 | 3 | 16 | 3-phase | SPMSM | [230] |
9 | 3-sector | No | Single | 36 | 2 | 6 | 3-phase | PMaSynRM | [97,98,129,167,224,235,236,237,238,242,243,244,245,270] |
9 | Sym. | No | Single | 54 | 1 | 6 | 3-phase | IM | [269] |
24 | 8-sector | Yes | Double | 72 | 3 | 64 | 3-phase | Outer-rotor SPMSM | [27] |
5.3.2.2. Chronological Overview
WSA | * | 3-Phase OC | 1-Phase SC, 2-Phase OC | 3-Phase SC | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Radial Force | Torque Ripple | Maximum Torque | Torque Ripple | SC Current | Torque Ripple | SC Current | ||
Symmetrical | Low | Low | Low | High | High | Low | Low | Low |
Two-sector | Very low | High | Low | Low | High | Very low | High | Very low |
5.3.3. Current Control
Reference | Machine | Special Current References | Current Controller | Salient Features |
---|---|---|---|---|
Mohammadpour and Parsa [252] | PMSM | In healthy phases, for reducing SC current | Hysteresis | General; large current |
References | Machine | VSC Leg/s of Faulty ph. | Special Current References | Current Controller | Salient Features |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mitcham/Arumugam et al. [223,227] | PMSM | Switching | In faulty ph., 90 lagging back-EMF | − | Simple |
Wu et al. [96] | Asym. 6-ph. SPMSM | Switching | with 1st and 3rd harmonics | − | 3rd harm. |
Wang et al. [224] | 3×3-ph. PMaSynRM | Switching | In faulty set, for reducing SC current | − | 3-sector |
Gerada et al. [253] | IM | Switching | Reduced | Hyst. or multiple PI | IM; idle |
5.3.3.1. Reduction in SC Current under Phase SC
5.3.3.2. Reduction in SC Current under Turn Fault
5.3.3.3. Reduction in Torque Ripple under Phase SC
References | Machine | Special Current References | Current Controller | Salient Features |
---|---|---|---|---|
Ede et al. [163] | PMSM | MLS | − | − |
Atallah/Wang et al. [164,165] | PMSM | MLS | − | Field-weakening |
Sun et al. [162] | 5-ph. SPMSM | MLS | Multiple PI | Field-weakening |
Bianchi et al. [254] | 5-ph. SPMSM | Cancel 2nd & 4th torque harms. | − | Simple; 3rd harm. |
Mohammadpour et al. [251] | PMSM | Iterative learning control | Multiple PI | Robust |
Xu et al. [265] | Sym. 6-ph. SPMSM | Robust speed control | Multiple PI | Robust; ripple |
Guo et al. [272] | Dual 5-ph. SPMSM | Robust speed control | − | Robust |
Mohammadpour & Parsa [252] | PMSM | MLS | Hysteresis | General; harms. |
Wu et al. [220] | Asym. 6-ph. SPMSM | MLS | Hysteresis | 3rd harm. |
Sen et al. [166] | PMSM | MLS | Per-ph. multi-resonant | Field-weak.; harms. |
Zhou/Chen et al. [255,257] | 5-ph. IPMSM | − | Reduced VSD + PI + SC curr. FF | Fast; sensors; not robust |
Zhou et al. [256] | 5-ph. IPMSM | − | DTC * + disturbance observer | Robust |
Jiang et al. [101] | Sym. 6-ph. SPMSM | − | RFOC + modified SV PWM | Topology |
Si et al. [239] | 4-ph. SPMSM | Constant torque (single solution) | − | Topology |
Huang et al. [241] | 5-ph. SPMSM | Equal phase-current amplitudes | − | High torque; not MLS |
Yin et al. [234] | 5-ph. SPMSM | No -axis current constraint | − | High torque; not MLS |
5.3.3.4. Reduction in Torque Ripple under Turn Fault
References | Machine | VSC Leg/s of Faulty ph. | Special Current References | Current Controller | Salient Features |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mohammadpour and Parsa [252] | PMSM | Switching | MLS | Hysteresis | General; harms. |
Wu et al. [96] | Asym. 6-ph. SPMSM | Terminal SC | MLS | Hysteresis | Low SC current |
Cui et al. [94] | 5-ph. IPMSM | Switching | − | - PI + zero-seq. current FF | Fast |
Fan et al. [248] | 5-ph. IPMSM | Open | − | Reduced VSD + PI + voltage FF | Fast; open leg |
5.3.4. Flux Shunt
5.4. Concluding Remarks about Stator SC Faults
6. Switch SC Faults
6.1. Causes of Switch SC Faults
6.2. Detection of Switch SC Faults
6.3. Tolerance to Switch SC Faults
6.3.1. Drive Topologies
6.3.1.1. Increasing Isolation by VSC Modularity
References | VSC Topology | Reconfiguration | Figure | Valid for H-Bridges | Special Machine | Torque Derating | Voltage * Derating |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Many | Any + 1-4 fuses or 1 switch per line | Convert into phase OC | 15b–e | Yes | No | Yes | No |
Kumar et al. [275] | Any + 1, n, legs & , switches | Replace faulty leg by redundant | − | Yes | No | No | No |
Mecrow et al. [99,240] | One or multiple FBs | Clamp both terminals of stator ph. | 16 | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Nguyen et al. [273] | Dual HB | Clamp both terminals of stator ph. | 17 | No | No | No | Yes |
Nguyen et al. [273] | Dual HB | Create virtual neutral point | 18 | No | No | No | Yes |
Si et al. [239] | Dual HB + (2+3n) fuses & 6 switches | Create virtual neutral point | 13 | No | No | No | Yes |
Reddy et al. [274] | HBs + 2 extra switches | Create virtual neutral point | − | No | No | No | Yes |
Wang et al. [243,245] | HBs | Impose 3-phase SC | − | No | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Wang et al. [103,277] | Any + 1,2 fuses & 1 switch per leg | Clamp terminal to dc-bus midpt. O | 15g,h | Yes | No | No | Yes |
Yepes et al. [343] | Any + 1,2 fuses & 1 switch per leg | Alternate phase OC/clamping to O | 15g,h | Yes | No | If ↑ volt. | If ↑ torq. |
6.3.1.2. Conversion of Switch SC Fault into Phase OC
6.3.1.3. Redundant VSC Legs
6.3.1.4. Clamping Both Terminals of a Stator Phase through VSC
6.3.1.5. Creating Virtual Neutral Point through Dual HB VSCs
6.3.1.6. Applying Three-Phase SC through VSC
6.3.1.7. Allowing Current Flow through All Phases Avoiding Shorted Switches
6.3.2. Machine Design
6.3.3. Control and Modulation
6.4. Concluding Remarks about Switch SC Faults
7. Speed/Position-Sensor Faults
7.1. Causes of Speed/Position-Sensor Faults
7.2. Detection of Speed/Position-Sensor Faults
7.3. Tolerance to Speed/Position-Sensor Faults
References | Method Description | Machine | Differs from * | Proved to Work with Other Simult. Faults | Works at & Near 0 r/min | Extra Loss/Ripple | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | WSA | Rotor | ||||||
Nguyen et al. [186] | Adaptive linear neural network | 5 | Sym. | PMSM | No | No | No | No |
Olivieri et al. [130,187] | Back-EMF Luenberger observ. | 5 | Sym. | PMSM | No | No | No | No |
Olivieri et al. [127] | Back-EMF Luenberger observ. (designed for ph. OC) | 5 | Sym. | PMSM | Yes | Phase OC | No | No |
Xu et al. [210,211] | Back-EMF non-orthog. observ. (2 arbitrary phases) | 6 | Sym. | PMSM | Yes | Stator SC/OC | No | No |
Imai et al. [196] | Back-EMF disturb. observ. (extended for saliency) | 9 | Multisec. | PMSM | Yes | No | No | No |
Belie et al. [217] | Back-EMF 3rd-harm. observ. (PMSM with ph. OCs) | 5 | Sym. | PMSM | Yes | Phase OC | No | No |
Stiscia et al. [198] | Back-EMF 3rd-harm. observ. (healthy PMSM) | 9 | Sym. | PMSM | Yes | No | No | No |
Slunjski et al. [199] | Back-EMF 5th-harm. observ. (healthy PMSM) | 9 | Sym. | PMSM | Yes | No | No | No |
Taheri et al. [206,207] | Extended Kalman filter | 6 | Asym. | IM | Yes | No | No | No |
Tian et al. [216] | Free-wheeling current under IGBT fault | 5 | Sym. | PMSM | Yes | Switch OC | No | No |
Zhang et al. [209] | High-freq. inject. (flux-intensifying PMSM) | 5 | Sym. | PMSM | No | No | Yes | Yes |
Liu et al. [201] | High-freq. inject. ( square wave) | 5 | Sym. | PMSM | Yes | No | Yes | Yes |
Tian et al. [208] | High-freq. inject. (system delay & stator resistance) | 5 | Sym. | PMSM | Yes | No | Yes | Yes |
Barcaro et al. [215] | High-freq. inject. (various stator configs.) | 6 | As./sym./mul. | PMSM | No | Phase OC | Yes | Yes |
Almarhoon et al. [191] | High-freq. inject. (stat. frame inject.; 0-seq. meas.) | 6 | Asym. | PMSM | Yes | No | Yes | Yes |
Almarhoon et al. [192] | High-freq. inject. (synch. frame inject.; 0-seq. meas.) | 6 | Asym. | PMSM | Yes | No | Yes | Yes |
Imai et al. [195] | High-freq. inject. (standstill; SPMSM) | 9 | Multisec. | PMSM | Yes | No | Yes | Yes |
Ramezani et al. [188] | High-freq. inject. (- rotating sine wave) | 9 | Sym. | PMSM | Yes | No | Yes | Yes |
Guzman et al. [181] | Minimization of torque error | 5 | Sym. | PMSM | No | No | No | No |
Khadar et al. [193] | MRAS (flux-based; + parameter estimation) | 5 | Sym. | IM | No | No | No | No |
Khadar et al. [194] | MRAS (sliding mode; + parameter estimation) | 5 | Sym. | IM | No | No | No | No |
Holakooie et al. [204] | MRAS (sliding mode) | 6 | Asym. | IM | No | No | No | No |
Holakooie et al. [205] | MRAS (sliding mode; + rotor-time-constant est.) | 6 | Asym. | IM | No | No | No | No |
Listwan et al. [197] | MRAS (flux-based and current¤t-based) | 7 | Sym. | IM | No | No | No | No |
Hezzi et al. [182] | Resilient control based on active dist. rejection | 5 | Sym. | PMSM | Yes | No | No | No |
Amin et al. [203] | Rotor-flux robust simplified dynamic observer | 6 | Asym. | IM | No | No | No | No |
Mengoni et al. [183] | Rotor-flux 3rd-harm. observ. (healthy IM) | 7 | Sym. | IM | Yes | No | No | Yes |
Mengoni et al. [184,185] | Rotor-flux 3rd-harm. observ. (healthy IM; ↓ speed) | 7 | Sym. | IM | Yes | No | Yes | Yes |
Yepes et al. [202] | Rotor-slot harm. due to fund. current (healthy) | Any | Asym./sym. | IM | Yes | No | No | No |
Yepes et al. [214] | Rotor-slot harm. due to fund. current (phase OC) | Any | Asym./sym. | IM | Yes | Phase OC | No | No |
Kong et al. [218] | Sliding-mode observ. (+ stator-resist. estimation) | 5 | Sym. | IM | Yes | Phase OC | No | No |
Mossa et al. [189] | Sliding-mode observ. (+ rotor-resist. estimation) | 5 | Sym. | IM | Yes | No | No | No |
Zhang et al. [219] | Sliding-mode observ. (volt. FF; active resist.) | 5 | Sym. | PMSM | No | Phase OC | No | No |
Bensalem et al. [86] | Sliding-mode observ. (including 3rd space harm.) | 5 | Sym. | PMSM | Yes | No | No | No |
Geng et al. [213] | Sliding-mode observ. (reduced-order transf.) | 6 | Asym. | IM | Yes | Phase OC | No | No |
Xiao et al. [87] | Sliding-mode observ. (load-torque est. & rejection) | 6 | Asym. | PMSM | No | No | No | No |
Zheng et al. [190] | St.-flux variable-structure observ. | 5 | Asym. | IM | No | No | No | No |
Parsa et al. [200] | St.-flux volt.-model observ. (load angle included) | 5 | Sym. | PMSM | No | No | No | No |
Green et al. [212] | St.-flux volt.-model observ. (per phase) | 6 | Sym. | PMSM | Yes | Stator SC/OC | No | No |
Wang et al. [58] | St.-flux volt.-model observ. (= st.-flux & rotor freqs.) | 6 | Asym. | PMSM | No | No | No | No |
Bojoi et al. [161] | St.-flux Gopinath observ. (fault: ignore rotor model) | 6 | Asym. | IM | Yes | Phase OC | No | No |
7.3.1. Encoderless Low-Frequency Observers
7.3.1.1. Stator-Flux Fundamental Observers
7.3.1.2. Rotor-Flux Fundamental Observers
7.3.1.3. Back-EMF Fundamental Observers
7.3.1.4. Rotor-Flux Harmonic Observers
7.3.1.5. Back-EMF Harmonic Observers
7.3.1.6. Sliding-Mode Observers
7.3.1.7. Model Reference Adaptive Systems (MRASs)
References | Machine | Reference Model | Adaptive Model | Model Output | Adapted Parameter | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | WSA | Rotor | |||||
Khadar et al. [193] | 5 | Sym. | IM | Conventional voltage model | Conventional current model | Rotor flux | Speed |
Listwan and Pieńkowski [197] | 7 | Sym. | IM | Actual machine | Hybrid voltage-current model | Current | Speed |
Holakooie et al. [204,205] | 6 | Asym. | IM | 2nd-order sliding-mode observer | Conventional current model | Rotor flux | Speed |
Khadar et al. [194] | 5 | Sym. | IM | Sigmoid-based sliding-mode observer | Conventional current model | Rotor flux | Speed |
7.3.1.8. Free-Wheeling Current of OC IGBT
7.3.1.9. Other Low-Frequency Observers
7.3.2. Encoderless High-Frequency Observers
7.3.2.1. Based on Rotor-Slot Harmonics Due to Fundamental Current
7.3.2.2. High-Frequency Signal Injection
References | Machine | Injected Signal | Measurement | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | WSA | Rotor | |||
Zhang et al. [209] | 5 | Sym. | IPMSM | Rotating sine wave in - stat. frame | Negative-seq. - current |
Ramezani and Ojo [188] | 9 | Sym. | IPMSM | Rotating sine wave in - stat. frame | - current harmonic |
Almarhoon et al. [191] | 6 | Asym. | IPMSM | Rotating sine waves in double - stat. frames | Zero-seq. voltage |
Barcaro et al. [215] | 6 | Asym./sym./mult. | IPMSM | Pulsating sine wave in axis | current harmonic |
Imai et al. [195] | 9 | Multisec. | SPMSM | Pulsating sine wave in q axis of one sector | d axis of same sector |
Almarhoon et al. [192] | 6 | Asym. | IPMSM | Pulsating sine waves in double d axes | Zero-seq. voltage |
Liu et al. [201] | 5 | Sym. | IPMSM | Pulsating square wave in axis | - current harmonic |
Tian et al. [208] | 5 | Sym. | IPMSM | Pulsating square/sine wave in axis | current harmonic |
7.3.3. Encoderless Resilient Control
7.4. Concluding Remarks about Speed/Position-Sensor Faults
- By setting to zero the current reference of a secondary plane of a PMSM with certain back-EMF harmonics, a back-EMF harmonic and its phase angle (rotor position) can easily be obtained from the respective voltage references without the need of machine parameters, such as inductances and resistances [198,199], unlike for ;
8. DC-Link Voltage Shortage
- If the modulation index increases beyond the linear modulation range, overmodulation occurs. This means that low-order voltage harmonics are introduced, the VSD subspaces become coupled in terms of voltage, and the conventional PWM and control methods are no longer able to work properly [8,9,134,135,137,138,139,142,143,145,147,148,149,150,151,152,154,155,156,158,159,167];
8.1. Causes of DC-Link Voltage Shortage
8.2. Detection of DC-Link Voltage Shortage
8.3. Tolerance to DC-Link Voltage Shortage
8.3.1. Isolation of VSC Module
8.3.2. Zero-Sequence Voltage Injection: 1ZS and MZS
8.3.3. Overmodulation
8.3.3.1. Square-Wave Switching and Passive x-y Filters
8.3.3.2. Combination of Passive x-y Filters and PWM
8.3.3.3. Overmodulation by Using PWM
References | Method Description | n | WSA | VSC | Unneeded Dis-Tortion * | Minimum | Autom. i Limitation | Compu-Tational Complex. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Various [140,144,145] | Square-wave switching | Any | Any | HB | Yes | No | No | Very low |
Various [146,148] | SV PWM with 2 large vectors | Any | Any | HB | No | No | No | Medium |
Iqbal and Levi [148] | SV PWM with 2 large and 2 med. vectors | 5 | Sym. | HB | No | No | No | Medium |
Carrasco and Silva [149] | SV PWM with min. | 5 | Sym. | HB | No | Yes | No | Very high |
Duran et al. [151] | SV PWM with min. and no common mode | 5 | Sym. | HB | No | Yes | No | Very high |
Prieto et al. [152] | SV PWM with low and no common mode | Odd | Sym. | HB | No | No | No | Very high |
Bu et al. [159] | SV PWM with linear injection | 5 | Sym. | HB | No | No | No | Medium |
Priestley et al. [133] | SV PWM for FB VSC | 5 | Sym. | FB | No | No | No | Very high |
Yazdani et al. [156] | SV PWM with double 3-phase VSD | 6 | Asym. | HB | Yes | No | No | Very high |
Zhu et al. [139] | SV PWM with double 3-phase VSD | 6 | Asym. | HB | Yes | No | No | High |
Zhou et al. [154] | SV PWM with 6-phase VSD | 6 | Asym. | HB | No | Yes | No | Very high |
Paul and Basu [157] | SV PWM with double 3-phase VSD (limited m) | 6 | Asym. | HB | No | Yes | No | High |
Paul and Basu [158] | SV PWM with double 3-phase VSD (extended m) | 6 | Asym. | HB | No | Yes | No | High |
Yang et al. [160] | SV PWM with sequential optimization scheme | Any | Sym. | HB | No | No | No | Very high |
Yepes et al. [137] | CB PWM for multifrequency current control | Any | As./sym. | FB/HB | Yes | No | No | Low |
Komrska et al. [155] | CB PWM with high utilization | Any | Sym. | HB | No | No | No | Medium |
Yepes et al. [142,143] | Simple CB PWM with high utilization | Any | As./sym. | HB | No | No | No | Low |
Vancini et al. [153] | CB PWM extended from | 5 | Sym. | HB | No | Yes | No | Low |
Yepes et al. [138] | CB PWM with adaptive x-y current limitation | 5 | Sym. | HB | No | No | Yes | Medium |
8.3.3.4. Automatic x-y Current Limitation
8.3.3.5. Closed-Loop and Multifrequency Control under Overmodulation
- Although open-loop control is reliable and simple [334], it is, in principle, only suitable for IMs, and its performance is usually inferior to closed-loop control in terms of efficiency, transient behavior, etc. Hence, closed-loop control is frequently preferred. However, during overmodulation, the actual low-frequency voltage components may differ to a great extent from the requested ones. That is, the plant seen by the current control (e.g., when using RFOC) becomes substantially non-linear. Consequently, in case of closed loop, the dynamics are likely to be worsened or even become unstable. In particular, saturating the output of a closed-loop linear controller with integral terms is known to cause unconstrained increase (wind-up) in the accumulated error in them [555,556]. In this manner, in a VSC with this type of control, the voltage reference tends to rise without limits when the actual ac voltage is saturated [557]. This increase aggravates the distortion associated with the output saturation, and it can also cause very long transient and large overshoot when the cause of saturation is eventually removed (e.g., recover) [556,557,558].
- As previously mentioned, most overmodulation algorithms assume that there is only - voltage reference. Non-zero voltage references are highly advisable in secondary subspaces where current can flow. This is mainly because, as a consequence of the corresponding low impedance, even small uncompensated voltage disturbances (due to dead times, asymmetries, saturation, back-EMF harmonics, etc.) give rise to large undesired currents [134,135,137,139,487,488,493,494]. Alternative reasons for including multifrequency (multi-subspace) voltages are, e.g., enhancing the torque density by harmonic injection [5,6,7,8,9,10] or driving several machines by a single VSC [2,10,12]. In any of these cases, the output of the multifrequency current control consists of non-zero voltage references in multiple subspaces and frequencies, so as to cancel the effect of the voltage disturbances and/or impose required currents.
8.3.4. Reducing AC Voltage References to Restore Linear Modulation in PWM-Based Control
8.3.4.1. Fundamental Frequency
8.3.4.2. Multifrequency Control for Disturbance Compensation
References | n | WSA | Unneeded Fundamental Reduction | Depends on Relative Phase between Harmonics | Periodically Disables Harmonic Control | Needs Measurement |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Yepes et al. [137] | Any | Asym./sym. | Yes | No | No | Yes |
Karttunen et al. [135] | 6 | Asym. | No | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Feng et al. [134] | 6 | Asym. | No | Yes | Yes | No |
8.3.4.3. Multifrequency Control for Enhancement of Torque Density
- (I)
- Both fundamental and third-order current components are exploited;
- (II)
- The third-order current harmonic is gradually reduced to avoid overmodulation;
- (III)
- Said harmonic is completely avoided, and field-weakening is applied to the fundamental if necessary;
- (IV)
- With available and field-weakening, it is no longer possible to provide maximum current, and, hence, the output power is reduced.
8.3.4.4. Multifrequency Control for other Applications
8.3.5. Consideration of Voltage Constraints in Current FCS-MPC
- In the first one, the optimum current references are obtained by minimizing a cost function involving the SCL and torque error, under the drive constraints: mainly the voltage (peak phase-to-phase voltage below ) and current (peak line current below switch maximum current) restrictions. Conversely to [7], which addresses a similar application with linear control (discussed in Section 8.3.4.3), the dc-link utilization is not unnecessarily reduced by simplifications in this regard. Furthermore, in this case the voltage constraint is taken into consideration in the optimization of the current references, unlike in [7];
- In the second stage, the cost function related to the squared current errors is minimized to find the optimum switching vectors.
8.3.6. Reconfiguration of Stator Phase Connection
8.3.7. Tolerance to Uncontrolled Rectification by Machines with Low Back-EMF
8.4. Concluding Remarks about DC-Link Voltage Shortage
9. DC-Link Voltage Excess
9.1. Causes of DC-Link Voltage Excess
9.2. Detection of DC-Link Voltage Excess
9.3. Tolerance to DC-Link Voltage Excess
9.4. Concluding Remarks about DC-Link Voltage Excess
10. Machine-Cooling Faults
10.1. Causes of Machine-Cooling Faults
10.2. Detection of Machine-Cooling Faults
References | Machine | x-y Injected Frequency | Causes Torque Ripple | Assumes Uniform Temperature | Estimated Temperature | Uses Extra Hardware | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | WSA | Rotor | ||||||
Baneira et al. [70] | 6 | Asym. | IPMSM | dc | No | Yes | Stator winding | Yes |
Sun et al. [60] | Any | Asym./sym. | Any | dc | No | No | Stator winding | Yes |
Li et al. [71] | 6 | Asym. | IPMSM | Fund. | No | Yes | Stator winding | No |
Feng et al. [72] | 6 | Asym. | IPMSM | Fund. | No | Yes | Magnets | No |
Li et al. [73] | 6 | Asym. | IPMSM | Fund. | No | Yes | Magnets and winding | No |
10.3. Tolerance to Machine-Cooling Faults
10.4. Concluding Remarks about Machine-Cooling Faults
11. Permanent-Magnet Demagnetization
11.1. Causes of Permanent-Magnet Demagnetization
11.2. Detection of Permanent-Magnet Demagnetization
References | Machine | Current Control with Zero Error at Monitored Harmonic | Monitored Harmonics | x-y Current Reference | Needs Extra * Sensors | Diagnoses Other Faults | Smooth Postfault Torque | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | WSA | Rotor | |||||||
Gritli et al. [77,78] | 5 | Sym. | SPMSM | No | th x-y voltage/current | 0 | No | No | Yes |
Casadei et al. [76] | 5 | Sym. | SPMSM | Yes | th x-y voltage | 0 | No | No | Yes |
Tani et al. [68] | 5 | Sym. | SPMSM | Yes | th x-y voltage | 0 | No | High resist. | Yes |
Mengoni et al. [74] | 6 | Asym. | SPMSM | Yes | 5th x-y voltage | 0 | No | No | Yes |
Gritli et al. [75] | 6 | Asym. | SPMSM | Yes | 5th and th x-y voltage | 0 | No | No | Yes |
11.3. Tolerance to Permanent-Magnet Demagnetization
References | Method Description | Reduces Torque Ripple Due to Local Demagnetization | Reduces Impact of Flux Decrease |
---|---|---|---|
Gritli et al. [74,75,78] | Null winding-function - harmonics | Yes | No |
Gritli et al. [68,74,75,76,77,78] | Zero x-y current reference | Yes | No |
Zhang et al. [178] | Extra windings | No | Yes |
Wang et al. [129] | Adopt PMaSynRM | Yes | Yes |
11.4. Concluding Remarks about Permanent-Magnet Demagnetization
12. Other Types of Faults
12.1. DC-Link Capacitor Faults
References | Topology | Figure | Tolerates Capacitor SC | Tolerates Capacitor OC | Tolerates Capacitor Aging | Tolerates Supply Fault |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Various [27,130] | VSC modules with capacitors in parallel, using fuses | 40 | Yes | Partially | Partially | No |
Wang et al. [129] | Independent VSC modules | 9a–c,e | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
12.2. DC-Link Power-Supply Faults
Topology | Figure | Performance Degradation | Refs. |
---|---|---|---|
Independent VSC modules | 9 | Torque derating | [25] |
Dual HB + (2+3n) fuses and 6 switches | 13 | No | [239] |
12.3. DC-Link Voltage-Sensor Faults
12.4. Current-Sensor Faults
12.5. Control-Unit Faults
12.6. Mechanical Faults
12.6.1. Eccentricity
References | Machine | Monitored Spectrum | Eccentricity | Needs Extra * Sensors | Differs from n = 3 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | WSA | Rotor | |||||
Andriamalala et al. [79] | 6 | Sym. | IM | Phase current/voltage | Mixed | No | No |
Maouche et al. [80] | 6 | Sym. | IM | Voltage between neutrals | Static | 1 volt. | Yes |
Choi et al. [84] | 5 | Sym. | PMaSynRM | Combined phase currents | Mixed | No | Yes |
Malvar [604] | 5 | Sym. | IM | VSD current/voltage | Mixed | No | Yes |
12.6.2. Broken Rotor Bars
References | Machine | Monitored Spectrum | Broken Bars | Needs Extra * Sensors | Differs from n = 3 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | WSA | Rotor | |||||
Maouche et al. [82] | 6 | Asym./sym. | IM | Phase current or torque | 1 | No | Yes |
Maouche et al. [83] | 6 | Asym. | IM | Phase current | 1 | No | Yes |
Abdel-Mageed et al. [85] | 6 | Asym. | IM | Phase current (neural network) | 1, 2 | No | Yes |
Farag et al. [62] | 6 | Sym. | IM | - or phase current | 1, 2, 3 | No | No |
12.6.3. Bearing Faults
12.7. Concluding Remarks about Other Types of Faults
13. Comparison of Drive Topologies Considering Multiple Fault Types
- Better signal-to-noise ratio [84] and discrimination between faults [604] for diagnosis based on stator current (see, e.g., Section 12.6.1);
- Some current DOFs may give rise to significant uncontrolled current if, after a switch SC, current can still flow through the corresponding path but it is not controllable (no longer a DOF), e.g., the zero-sequence current in FB VSCs (see Section 6.3.1.4) [273];
- Drive non-idealities, such as undesired asymmetries and harmonics can cause troublesome current components through these DOFs, either at low or high frequencies, worsening torque pulsation and efficiency even in healthy operation unless special measures are taken (e.g., specific control, extra inductors, etc.) [101,488];
VSC Topology | Stator Splitting | Figure | Stator Current DOFs | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Healthy Drive | Phase OCs or Terminal SCs | OC legs ( Parallel Pairwise) | Supply Faults | Capacitor Faults | |||
Single n-phase HB VSC | No | 8a | 0 | 0 | |||
Single n-phase HB VSC | l-phase | − | 0 | 0 | |||
Single (n+1)-phase HB VSC | No | 8b | n | 0 | 0 | ||
Single (n+)-phase HB VSC | l-phase | 8c | n | 0 | 0 | ||
Single n-phase FB VSC | Single-ph. | 8d | n | 0 | 0 | ||
Series dc-side connect. of l-phase HBs | l-phase | 8e | 0 | ||||
Series dc-side connect. of H-bridges | Single-ph. | 8f | n | 0 | |||
Parallel n-phase HB VSCs | No | 8g | 0 | 0 | |||
Parallel n-phase HB VSCs | l-phase | − | 0 | 0 | |||
Series dc-side connect. of parallel l-ph. HBs | l-phase | 8h | 0 | ||||
Single n-phase T-type three-level VSC | No | 8i | 0 | 0 | |||
Single n-phase T-type three-level VSC | l-phase | − | 0 | 0 | |||
Multiple independent l-phase HBs | l-phase | 9a | |||||
Multiple independent (l+1)-phase HBs | l-phase | 9b | n | ||||
Multiple independent H-bridges | Single-ph. | 9c | n | ||||
Dual n-phase HB VSC | Single-ph. | 9d | ;0 if | ;0 if | |||
Multiple independent parallel l-ph. HBs | l-phase | 9e |
VSC Topology | Stator Splitting | Figure | Stator Current DOFs for Healthy Drive | Switch SCs (Different Legs and Phases) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Reconfiguration (cf. Section 6.3.1 | Stator Current DOFs | Uncontrolled Current Paths | ||||
Single n-phase FB VSC | Single-ph. | 8d | n | Clamp both ph. terminals | ||
Multiple independent H-bridges | Single-ph. | 9c | n | Clamp both ph. terminals | ||
Dual n-phase HB VSC | Single-ph. | 9d | Clamp both ph. terminals | ; if | 0; if | |
Dual n-phase HB VSC | Single-ph. | 9d | Virtual neutral * | 0 |
VSC Topology | Stator Splitting | Figure | Stator Current DOFs | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Healthy Drive | 1 OC Phase/leg or Terminal SC | 1 Supply Fault | 1 Capacitor Fault | |||
Single n-phase HB VSC | No | 8a | 5 | 3 | 0 | 0 |
Single n-phase HB VSC | 3-phase | − | 3 | 2 | 0 | 0 |
Single (n+1)-phase HB VSC | No | 8b | 6 | 5 | 0 | 0 |
Single (n+)-phase HB VSC | 3-phase | 8c | 6 | 5 | 0 | 0 |
Single n-phase FB VSC | Single-ph. | 8d | 6 | 5 | 0 | 0 |
Series dc-side connect. of l-phase HBs | 3-phase | 8e | 4 | 4 | 0 | 2 |
Series dc-side connect. of H-bridges | Single-ph. | 8f | 6 | 5 | 0 | 5 |
Parallel n-phase HB VSCs | No | 8g | 5 | 5 | 0 | 0 |
Parallel n-phase HB VSCs | 3-phase | − | 4 | 4 | 0 | 0 |
Series dc-side connect. of parallel l-ph. HBs | 3-phase | 8h | 4 | 4 | 0 | 2 |
Single n-phase T-type three-level VSC | No | 8i | 5 | 4 | 0 | 0 |
Single n-phase T-type three-level VSC | 3-phase | − | 4 | 3 | 0 | 0 |
Multiple independent l-phase HBs | 3-phase | 9a | 4 | 3 | 2 | 2 |
Multiple independent (l+1)-phase HBs | 3-phase | 9b | 6 | 5 | 3 | 3 |
Multiple independent H-bridges | Single-ph. | 9c | 6 | 5 | 5 | 5 |
Dual n-phase HB VSC | Single-ph. | 9d | 5 | 4 | 5 | 5 |
Multiple independent parallel l-ph. HBs | 3-phase | 9e | 4 | 4 | 2 | 2 |
VSC Topology | Stator Splitting | Figure | Stator Current DOFs for Healthy Drive | 1 Switch SC | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Reconfiguration (cf. Section 6.3.1 | Stator Current DOFs | Uncontrolled Current Paths | ||||
Single n-phase FB VSC | Single-ph. | 8d | n | Clamp both ph. terminals | 1 | |
Multiple independent H-bridges | Single-ph. | 9c | n | Clamp both ph. terminals | 1 | |
Dual n-phase HB VSC | Single-ph. | 9d | Clamp both ph. terminals | 0 | ||
Dual n-phase HB VSC | Single-ph. | 9d | Virtual neutral | 0 |
- In topologies not based on open-end windings, increasing the modularity and isolation of the machine stator by splitting the windings into sets of fewer phases (e.g., 3-phase sets) results in reduced current DOFs and hence worse tolerance to the aforesaid fault types;
- Adopting FB VSCs such as independent H-bridges in order to attain high modularity can be counterproductive for non-isolated switch SC failures, where the uncontrolled zero-sequence paths are excited leading to increased SC current;
- The extra current DOFs provided by H-bridges tend to exhibit undesired currents due to non-idealities, even for healthy drive;
- H-bridges imply inferior dc-link utilization, and, thus, lower tolerance to faults that mean reduced dc-bus voltage/s.
14. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
1ZS | One zero sequence |
CB | Carrier-based |
DOF | Degree of freedom |
DTC | Direct torque control |
EMF | Electromotive force |
FB | Full-bridge |
FCS-MPC | Finite-control-set model predictive control |
FF | Feed forward |
flop | Floating-point operation |
FRMLS | Full-range minimum-loss strategy |
FSCW | Fractional-slot concentrated winding |
HB | Half-bridge |
IGBT | Insulated-gate bipolar transistor |
IM | Induction machine |
IPMSM | Interior permanent-magnet synchronous machine |
MLS | Minimum-loss strategy |
MPC | Model predictive control |
MRAS | Model Reference Adaptive System |
MTS | Maximum-torque strategy |
MZS | Multiple zero sequence |
OC | Open circuit |
PI | Proportional-integral |
PMaSynRM | Permanent-magnet-assisted synchronous reluctance machine |
PMSM | Permanent-magnet synchronous machine |
PWM | Pulsewidth modulation |
RFOC | Rotor-field-oriented control |
SC | Short circuit |
SCL | Stator copper loss |
SPMSM | Surface-mounted permanent-magnet synchronous machine |
SV | Space vector |
SynRM | Synchronous reluctance machine |
THD | Total harmonic distortion |
VSC | Voltage-source converter |
VSD | Vector space decomposition |
WFSM | Wound-field synchronous machine |
WSA | Winding spatial arrangement |
ZOH | Zero-order hold |
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Yepes, A.G.; Lopez, O.; Gonzalez-Prieto, I.; Duran, M.J.; Doval-Gandoy, J. A Comprehensive Survey on Fault Tolerance in Multiphase AC Drives, Part 1: General Overview Considering Multiple Fault Types. Machines 2022, 10, 208. https://doi.org/10.3390/machines10030208
Yepes AG, Lopez O, Gonzalez-Prieto I, Duran MJ, Doval-Gandoy J. A Comprehensive Survey on Fault Tolerance in Multiphase AC Drives, Part 1: General Overview Considering Multiple Fault Types. Machines. 2022; 10(3):208. https://doi.org/10.3390/machines10030208
Chicago/Turabian StyleYepes, Alejandro G., Oscar Lopez, Ignacio Gonzalez-Prieto, Mario J. Duran, and Jesus Doval-Gandoy. 2022. "A Comprehensive Survey on Fault Tolerance in Multiphase AC Drives, Part 1: General Overview Considering Multiple Fault Types" Machines 10, no. 3: 208. https://doi.org/10.3390/machines10030208