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Article

A Conceptual Framework Based on Current Directives to Design Lithium-Ion Battery Industrial Repurposing Models

by
Akash Basia
1,
Zineb Simeu-Abazi
2,*,
Eric Gascard
2 and
Peggy Zwolinski
2
1
Verkor, 38000 Grenoble, France
2
Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP (Institute of Engineering Univ. Grenoble Alpes), G-SCOP, 38000 Grenoble, France
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Machines 2024, 12(7), 440; https://doi.org/10.3390/machines12070440
Submission received: 7 April 2024 / Revised: 23 May 2024 / Accepted: 30 May 2024 / Published: 27 June 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Evaluation of State of Health of Equipment for Predictive Maintenance and Circular Economy)
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Abstract

:
The global market for End of Life Lithium-Ion Batteries is growing exponentially to satisfy the needs of electric mobility and clean energy technologies. Reusing or repurposing these batteries could ensure sustainability and keep the excessive demands of raw materials in check. However, a strong commitment and trust from the various stakeholders is necessary to build such circular industrial systems. In this paper, a thorough analysis of practices and regulations allowed us to highlight the actors and processes involved in the life cycle of repurposed Lithium-Ion Batteries (LIBs). This led us to propose a conceptual framework describing a generic organization for LIB repurposing. LIB State of Health and diagnosis estimations, which can be carried out with data from LIB passports, are also underlined as essential for the functioning of the organization. This was discussed and implemented on a real case of LIBs used as a power source for electric heaters after their first life in a mobility application.

1. Introduction

In the case of Electric Vehicles (EVs), due to high power and energy requirements, a Lithium-Ion Battery (LIB) reaches its End of Life (EOL) when its capacity degrades by twenty to twenty-five per cent of its original capacity. As a result, a substantial amount of unused potential of the battery is wasted, which is detrimental to the environment. However, this new potential can also be considered as an opportunity to make EVs more affordable by applying the concept of battery second use. In less demanding applications, the remaining capacity can be repurposed as a second life. This second use can return some revenue to the Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) that may reduce EV prices, thus making them more competitive. According to a previous report [1], the global market of EOL Lithium-Ion Batteries is expected to grow by 3.5 billion dollars by 2025. However, strong commitment and trust from the various stakeholders is necessary to build such circular industrial systems. Since the degradation of every EV battery is unique, and its State of Health depends on previous exposure and treatment during their first life, the sorting of these batteries at EOL is a cumbersome task. Therefore, a standard testing procedure is urgently needed to safely characterize degraded batteries for second-life applications. Furthermore, there is a lack of an accepted standard for battery repurposing. Therefore, researchers call for battery quality standards and certification protocols to ensure safe and effective functioning in second-life applications [2,3].
With the unprecedented increase in the number of batteries across the globe, in December 2020, a proposal for a regulation from the European Parliament and Council concerning batteries and waste batteries, repealing Directive 2006/66/EC and amending Regulation (EU) No 2019/1020 [4], was introduced by the European Union (EU). This new battery regulation proposal aims to set standardized rules and instructions to enhance the functioning of the battery market, alleviate the social and environmental impact of batteries, and promote a circular economy [5,6]. In the past, Reinhardt et al. [7] proposed a conceptual innovative business model framework for battery second use based on the findings of Klör et al. [8] and Rehme et al. [9]. They came up with the concept of the intermediary market where intermediary agents will be responsible for battery collection, repurposing and finally selling second-life batteries to final customers on behalf of an EV manufacturer.
However, with the emergence of a new battery regulation proposal and the introduction of a digital battery passport (a digital twin of a physical battery that offers a global solution for securely sharing information and data) by the European Commission, there is a need for a more holistic framework for battery repurposing. This will mean more collaborative efforts from all the stakeholders involved in the battery lifecycle and a new circular industrial organization for LIB repurposing, showing the influence of EU legislation on industrial organization.
This paper presents some of the unpublished results from the PhD of Akash Basia [10] and is organized as follows. First, in Section 2, we present the state of the knowledge on how to add sustainability to the Lithium-Ion Battery life cycle. Section 3 identifies and presents the stakeholders involved in battery repurposing and discusses their responsibilities. A generic framework describing the current industrial organization of LIB repurposing is proposed, together with the necessary actions for assessing the State of Health of the batteries and decision support. Section 4 discusses the newly established policies and regulations related to LIB repurposing and how they could influence industrial organization, allowing better access to LIB life cycle data. In Section 5, we discuss the role of efficient State of Health (SoH) estimation in repurposing. Section 6 illustrates how the design of a new industrial organization can be supported by the generic framework by using a case study. The paper is concluded in Section 7.

2. How to Add Sustainability to the Lithium-Ion Batteries’ Life Cycle: The State of the Art

In recent decades, global warming and related resource exploitation have created a particularly pressing situation. Global concerns regarding the long-term effect of these issues have strengthened the need to shift towards approaches that ensure a more sustainable future. The transportation sector is a significant contributor to air pollution due to the unprecedented use of hydrocarbon-based fuels and the dependency on internal combustion engines for over a century [11].
To curb the drawbacks of the transportation sector, we can see that there has been a transition to Electric Vehicles (EVs), which are a promising solution to restricting such emissions. EVs are increasingly gaining a market share, and companies historically embedded in the combustion engine value chain are experiencing a once-in-a-century transformation of their traditional business model. Although EVs have no tailpipe emissions, their well-to-tank energy efficiency, derived from electricity generation and distribution to charge the EV battery, is unable to outperform internal combustion engine vehicles. Owing to higher energy density and low maintenance needs, Lithium-Ion Batteries have found their place as a power source in most Electric Vehicles. However, global mass-market adoption of EVs is still hindered by the currently high costs of LIB packs, which result in highly priced vehicles [12].
Also, the battery is the main contributor to environmental impacts and is faced with recycling issues. Lithium-Ion Batteries comprise exhaustible elements such as Lithium, Nickel and Cobalt. The extraction of these materials comes at a substantial environmental and health cost, meaning that it is utterly essential to utilize the batteries efficiently.
In addition to higher prices, these batteries are also not as green as they seem and are the main contributor to environmental impacts. These batteries reach their End of Life (EOL) when their capacity degrades to 80 percent of their original capacity and they cannot be used further in Electric Vehicles. Thus, a substantial amount of unused potential within the battery is wasted, which is detrimental to the environment. However, this unused potential can also be considered an opportunity to make EVs more affordable by applying the concept of battery second use. This can return some revenue to the Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) that may reduce EV prices, thus making EVs more competitive [13]. A previous report [14] classifies second-life applications according to the following three categories: (i) residence-related applications (3–4 kWh); (ii) commercial applications (25 kWh to 4 MWh): telecommunication towers, commercial lighting, uninterruptible power supply (UPS), etc.; and (iii) energy-related/industrial applications (up to 50 MWh): renewable energy storage, grid stabilization, etc. [15,16]. In this second life, batteries can be procured at low cost, indicating new businesses opportunities.
By facilitating remanufacturing, repurposing or reuse, the circular economy principles of reducing life cycle loops are respected [17]. The resource cycle can be slowed down by extending total battery life and partially closing the resource loop. The recycling phase is significantly delayed, leading to better sustainable resource management. This is where maintenance actions have a considerable role in the evaluation, diagnosis and decision support phases [18]. Ref. [19] argues that sustainable business models (SBMs) can significantly contribute to solving economic, ecological and social problems simultaneously.
However, few research efforts have gone into analyzing sustainable business models for EV batteries. Consequently, follow-up studies are needed tp evaluate the increased value of reusing EV batteries [20]. With the unprecedented increase in the number of Electric Vehicles, EOL EV batteries will change the current nature of the automotive and energy industries, as the electricity markets lack cost-effective Energy Storage Systems (ESS). Consequently, this provides ideal opportunities for Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) and new market stakeholders, such as electricity producers, grid operators, recycling companies, service providers and final customers, who will all be part of innovative and evolving value chains. Currently, the EV business model mainly focuses on economic aspects without integrating social and environmental dimensions as part of sustainable solutions [13]. Thus, a more holistic business model is required to ensure multidimensional sustainability with regard to Electric Vehicles.
The EV battery lifecycle mainly consists of raw material extraction (including mining and processing), battery manufacturing and primary use in the EV (first life), followed by EOL disposal [9,21,22,23]. To have a sustainable lifecycle, additional loops should be added such as reusing, remanufacturing or repurposing. During the first life, an EV battery’s life is vastly dependent on the usage conditions, characterized by driving patterns, operating temperatures and charging rates, which make each battery age individually and makes it difficult to predict a battery’s aging behavior. An EV battery is considered to reach EOL when it has degraded by 20–30% of its capacity [23]. As these batteries still retain around 70–80% capacity, researchers have found that instead of recycling these EOL batteries immediately after their first use in an EV, repurposing degraded EV batteries in a second life in less demanding stationary Energy Storage Systems (ESS) is still possible and feasible from a techno-economic and environmental perspective [22,24,25,26,27,28].
However, since the degradation of every EV battery is unique, and its State of Health depends on the previous exposure and treatment during their first life, the sorting of these batteries at EOL is a cumbersome task. Therefore, a standard testing procedure is urgently needed so that degraded batteries can be safely characterized for use in second-life applications. Furthermore, there is a lack of an accepted standard for battery reuse. Therefore, researchers are calling for battery quality standards and certification protocols to ensure safe and effective functioning in second-life applications.
The literature within this field has concluded that industrial and residential uses are the most sustainable second-life application for EV batteries [22,26,29]. Ref. [30] also argued that the residential sector is the most efficient second-life solution. However, from an economic point of view, ref. [31] suggests that large-scale stationary ESS are more viable. Ref. [9] classified second-life applications regarding the degree of mobility in ESS into stationary (e.g., home storage from PV panels), semi-stationary (e.g., power for construction sites) or mobile (e.g., reuse in scooters or golf cars) applications. Thus, the Battery Management System (BMS) has to be adjusted to the specific second-life application to increase the overall lifetime and economic benefits.

3. Framework for LIB Repurposing

3.1. Stakeholder Interaction

In [32], a timeline is presented for the life cycle of a battery going through a repurposing process. In this proposition, a single actor cannot handle the process of repurposing, and there are several stakeholders who have to work together to facilitate repurposing. The major stakeholders involved in battery repurposing infrastructure and their primary duties are listed below in Table 1.
The battery manufacturer can ensure manufacturing of the battery in such a way that reuse, recycling and repurposing can be simplified. Methods like battery tagging can help keep track of the battery source. The major player in repurposing infrastructure is the repurposer, who gives the battery a second life. Their principal role is to collect and sort the battery according to the degraded state, identify the proper application for the battery, integrate the battery into the second-life system and ensure smooth second-life operation.
Furthermore, repurposers are responsible for making decisions about battery handling after the end of their second life. In addition, there are third-party stakeholders such as data-based service providers who can support OEMs and repurposers in setting up an intelligent technical infrastructure for battery handling by providing artificial intelligence-based solutions. Recyclers ensure that unusable batteries do not go to landfill and that the maximum possible resources have been extracted from End of Life batteries. This whole infrastructure is directed and regulated by governmental regulatory bodies through regulations and standardization of the battery repurposing process. All these stakeholders have to harmonize their efforts to ensure the success of the repurposing business.

3.2. Policies Related to Battery Repurposing

Until now, very few Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) and battery manufacturing companies have considered the possibility of repurposing their batteries. Nevertheless, we explored the second life industrial collaborations currently taking place around the world. The objectives were to identify key stakeholders involved in the repurposing lifecycle to understand their organization (Table 2) and to build a generic framework for LIB repurposing.
In most of these cases, it is established that several stakeholders must work together to facilitate repurposing. The battery manufacturer ensures manufacturing of the battery in a way that reuse, recycling and repurposing can be simplified. Methods such as battery tagging can help ensure the end-to-end traceability of manufactured batteries. Different OEMs play a significant role in creating a repurposing landscape. They decide when the battery can be ejected from the first life, propose the collection of these batteries and identify the suitable repurposing agents for these EOL batteries. In addition, they ensure that lifetime monitoring is carried out for each battery pack to provide other stakeholders with health-related data.
The other major player in infrastructure is the repurposer, who gives the battery a second life. Their principal role is to collect and sort the battery according to the degraded state, identify the proper application for the battery, integrate it into the second-life system, and ensure smooth second-life operation. Furthermore, repurposers are responsible for making decisions about battery handling after the end of their second life.
In addition, there are third-party stakeholders such as data-based service providers who support OEMs and repurposers in setting up an intelligent technical infrastructure for battery handling by providing artificial intelligence-based solutions. Recyclers ensure that unusable batteries do not go to landfill and that the maximum possible resources are extracted from End-of-Life batteries. All these stakeholders must harmonize their efforts to ensure the success of repurposing business.
Based on the industrial State-of-the-Art of current repurposing systems and the historical works by Reinhardt et al. [7], we proposed a repurposing framework that is well adapted to the recent regulations published by the European Parliament and Council concerning batteries and waste batteries.
Figure 1 illustrates the proposed conceptual framework for the repurposing of Lithium-Ion Batteries. The cells highlighted in light yellow, such as LIB manufacturers, OEMs, charging infrastructure providers, etc., represent the stakeholders and their primary responsibilities. The framework depicts the flow of information and products between various stakeholders throughout the life cycle of a repurposed battery.

4. Influence of LIB Regulations on Industrial Organizations

The objective of the 2020 regulations of the European Parliament and Council concerning batteries and waste batteries [4] is to set standardized rules and instructions to enhance the functioning of the battery market, alleviate social and environmental impacts, promote the circular economy and facilitate battery repurposing. Its main key points related to repurposing include the following:
  • The right of repurposers to access the BMS data of EV batteries and industrial batteries.
  • Repurposers are obliged to ensure adequate quality control and safety during performance testing, packing and shipment of batteries and their components.
  • Repurposers shall ensure that the repurposed/remanufactured battery complies with these regulations related to environmental and human health protection requirements in other legislation and technical requirements for its specific purpose of use when placed on the market.
  • An electronic exchange system would be set up, storing characteristic information and data for each Electric Vehicle Battery (EVB) type and model, “shall be sortable and searchable, respecting open standards for third party use”.
The battery passport is expected to support second-life EVB operators to ensure better used EVB classification decisions and support recyclers in planning their operations more effectively. In addition, various regulatory bodies that ensure adequate quality control and safety during battery repurposing have established several standards. The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), which is an international standards organization drawing up and publishing international standards for electro technology, has provided the following standards related to LIB reuse:
  • IEC 62619:2022 [33]: This standard specifies requirements and tests for the safe operation of secondary lithium cells and batteries for use in industrial applications. The standards also include a detailed list of LIB second-life applications such as telecoms, uninterruptible power supplies, utility switching, emergency power and similar applications.
  • IEC 63330-1 ED1:2024 [34]: This standard specifies the requirements for the repurposing of secondary cells, modules, battery packs and battery systems. It also specifies the procedure to evaluate the performance and safety of used batteries for repurposing. The Energy Storage and Stationary Battery Committee under the management of the society of IEEE power and energy has developed a standard called P2993 (PE/ESSB) - Recommended Practices for Energy Storage System Design using Second-life Electric Vehicle Batteries. This standard describes the selection and repurposing (including design, operation and maintenance) of second-life Electric Vehicle batteries in Energy Storage Systems with voltage levels of 10 kV and below. Thus, there are well-defined standards set by different governing organizations to facilitate the repurposing of EV batteries. In relation to those regulations, the major inputs in Figure 1 are the elements included in the battery passport, which is designed to support second-life EVB operators to make better used EVB classification decisions and to support recyclers in planning their operations more effectively. The IEC directives of IEC 62619:2022 [33] and IEC 63330-1 ED1:2024 [34] give a broader idea of how to handle EOL batteries during battery sorting, diagnosis and integration into second-life applications. Once the battery reaches its second End Of Life, the recyclers can handle the batteries to close the loop.

5. Role of an Efficient SoH Estimation Methodology in the Context of Repurposing

Since there are several second-life applications for EOL batteries, the right choice of application at the right time has become necessary for efficient use of batteries throughout their life cycle. This decision to choose among multiple applications is firmly based on the State of Health (SoH) and the remaining useful life of these batteries at the time of their reuse [35]. The maintenance department can assume this role in order to decide on the orientation of the battery based on its SoH as shown in Figure 2, such as reuse [36], repair [37] or replace [38].
Now that data are available with the LIB passports, data-based diagnoses are possible. Data service providers will play a very important role in facilitating the estimation of LIB SoH while collecting and interpreting data. The battery passport keeps track of battery usage data throughout the life cycle, which can be exploited to estimate the SoH and the degradation trajectory in a more global way.
The degradation mechanism of the Lithium-Ion Battery is very dynamic and is dependent on several external (operating conditions) and internal (electrochemical degradation) factors [39]. In addition to this, there are other factors such as technical heterogeneity (availability of the same kind of products manufactured by different companies on the market) which make it difficult to have one global model for State of Health estimation. Setting up a prognostic health management system to estimate SoH includes identifying appropriate features and an efficient correlation algorithm. To cope with the problem of dynamic operating conditions and technical heterogeneity, we recommended creating a model database, consisting of estimation models for the different geographical regions [40]. The diagnosis of any battery is conducted after selecting the best model from the model database. Once the SoH is known, the second-life applications of EV batteries can be anticipated at an earlier stage. In addition, indicators like battery size, weight, and other aesthetic aspects should also be considered during decision making. Basia et al. proposed an Incremental Capacity (IC) curve-based SoH estimation system for Lithium-Ion Batteries [41]. This model employed a combination of Support Vector Regression (SVR) and the Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) to model the relationship between IC and SoH. The same model was offered to a company manufacturing electric heater batteries, and was used to make it possible to explore new industrial organizations in their future value chain by repurposing End-of-Life electric bike batteries.

6. End-of-Life Electric Bike Batteries Repurposed for Use in Electric Heater Batteries

Lancey Energy Storage designs and produces Lancey, a battery and a native Energy Management System (EMS) based on the smart electric heater. It is both ecologically and economically beneficial to customers and the environment. The battery charges during off-peak hours to power the radiator during peak hours, ensuring that the heater almost never consumes electricity during peak demand, when its production releases more carbon dioxide. In the case of a rooftop photovoltaic installation, the Lancey’s heater EMS and battery maximize its auto-consumption rate. Lancey uses a Lithium-Ion Battery consisting of premium battery cells, with a storage capacity of 800 Wh. These batteries come at a substantial cost leading to a higher capital expense. Lancey Energy Storage aims to explore the possibility of using second-life batteries from a two-wheeler mobility solution-providing company, La Poste in France. In this respect, we proposed a business landscape to Lancey for repurposing batteries based on the framework laid out in this paper. The goal is also to set up a repurposing system that includes IEC standards EU regulations and leverages battery passports. The landscape is well adapted to the proposed framework and is depicted in Figure 3 (scenario 1). La Poste Mobile is responsible for the collection of EOL batteries and for creating an inventory of them. Once there are enough batteries in the inventory, they will be sent to Lancey Energy Storage in accordance with proper transportation regulations. During the first life of batteries in bikes, a third-party data acquisition service provider, Orange, will create an infrastructure for scheduled sharing of battery usage data to Lancey Energy Storage. This will help in creating data-based insights for battery sorting.
When Lancey receives a stock of batteries, it will follow the IEC 62619:2022 [33] and IEC 63330-1 D1:2024 [34] standards to assess the EOL batteries and integrate them into their energy storage and heating system applications. Furthermore, at the end of their second life, these batteries will be sent to recyclers for material extraction, thereby facilitating the repurposing of Lithium-Ion Batteries. Another scenario is explored in Figure 4 (scenario 2) wherein the repurposing process can be outsourced to the recycler itself. La Poste Mobile is responsible for the collection of EOL batteries and for creating an inventory of them. Once there are enough batteries in the inventory, they will be sent to a recycler in accordance with proper transportation regulations. It is assumed that this recycler will have a well-established system for sorting battery and creating cells that can be reused in a second life in accordance with IEC 62619:2022 [33] and IEC 6330-1 D1:2024 [34] standards. The advantage of this landscape is that recyclers can directly recycle those batteries that are not good enough for second-life applications. During the first life of batteries in bikes, a third party data acquisition service provider, Orange, will create an infrastructure for the scheduled sharing of battery usage data to the recycler and Lancey Energy Storage. This will help in creating data-based insights for battery sorting, and will help Lancey to make decisions about second-life applications. Lancey can directly procure the repurposed batteries from this recycler to use in second-life applications. After the end of second life, Lancey can return the battery to the same recycler for material extraction. Depending on the technical capabilities of a company, they can decide whether they prefer to outsource the repurposing process to the recycler or to carry out this process themselves if they already possess an in-house repurposing capacity.

7. Conclusions and Perspectives

A conceptual framework is proposed in this paper to help design a repurposing business model for End-Of-Life Lithium-Ion Batteries. Various stakeholders and their interactions were identified to fit the framework to the recent European Commission battery regulation directive and IEC standards. Some recommendations are also provided concerning LIB SoH estimation. Industries can adapt to this framework based on their second-life applications. To illustrate this, we have presented a use case applied to an energy storage company called Lancey Energy Storage. The proposed framework is highly dependent on efficient insights into battery health during first-life operation, which is the responsibility of third-party data-based service providers. A life cycle assessment-based validation of this framework is planned in the future to strengthen the capabilities of this framework from the environmental, economic and social viewpoints.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.B., Z.S.-A., E.G. and P.Z.; methodology, A.B., Z.S.-A., E.G. and P.Z.; validation, A.B., Z.S.-A. and E.G.; investigation, A.B., Z.S.-A., E.G. and P.Z.; writing—original draft preparation, A.B.; writing—review and editing, A.B., Z.S.-A., E.G. and P.Z.; visualization, A.B., Z.S.-A. and E.G.; supervision, Z.S.-A., E.G. and P.Z.; project administration, A.B., Z.S.-A., E.G. and P.Z.; funding acquisition, P.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the French National Research Agency in the framework of the “Investissements d’avenir” program (ANR-15-IDEX-02).

Data Availability Statement

The data used to support the findings of this study are included within the paper.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the French National Research Agency and the companies involved in this project for their contributions.

Conflicts of Interest

Author Akash Basia is employed by the company Verkor. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
ARIMAAutoregressive Integrated Moving Average
BMSBattery Management System
EMSEnergy Management System
EOLEnd of Life
ESSEnergy Storage System
EUEuropean Union
EVElectric Vehicle
EVBElectric Vehicle Battery
ICIncremental Capacity
IECInternational Electrotechnical Commission
IEEEInstitute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
LIBLithium-Ion Battery
OEMOriginal Equipment Manufacturer
OEM_ROriginal Equipment Re-manufacturer
PVPhotoVoltaic
SBMSustainable Business Model
SoHState of Health
SVMSupport Vector Regression
UPSUninterruptible Power Supply

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Machines 12 00440 g001
Figure 1. Framework for LIB repurposing.
Figure 1. Framework for LIB repurposing.
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Figure 2. Schematic representation of maintenance policies from the Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) to the Remanufacturer (OEM/R).
Figure 2. Schematic representation of maintenance policies from the Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) to the Remanufacturer (OEM/R).
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Figure 3. The repurposing framework for Lancey, scenario 1: “in-house”.
Figure 3. The repurposing framework for Lancey, scenario 1: “in-house”.
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Figure 4. The repurposing framework for Lancey, scenario 2: “outsource”.
Figure 4. The repurposing framework for Lancey, scenario 2: “outsource”.
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Table 1. Stakeholders involved in battery repurposing.
Table 1. Stakeholders involved in battery repurposing.
StakeholderResponsibility
Battery Manufacturer1. Ecodesign of battery
2. Push the repurposing regulations
Battery based equipment manufacturer
(a) Electric Vehicle
(b) Two wheeler E-mobility
(c) ESS developer		1. Ensure efficient operation of battery to increase battery life
2. Timely collection of EOL battery from the equipment
3. Push the repurposing regulations
Charging Infrastructure companies1. Ensure optimal charging of battery to increase battery life
2. Can also create repurposed charging infrastructure
Data based Diagnostics as a Service provider1. Provide battery diagnostics insights to facilitate decision making
2. Create second life use models using EOL battery data
Repurposing Companies
(a) ESS developers
(b) Off-grid power generators
(c) Small scale consumer electronics manufacturer		1. Collection of the EOL batteries from OEM
2. Testing and sorting
3. Integration into new system
4. Lifecycle monitoring
Recyclers1. Collection of batteries after second EOL for recycling
R&D labs1. Support the repurposers to have state-of-the-art systems for diagnosis & battery sorting
Governmental Regulatory bodies1. Push the regulations to industrial market for ensuring safety repurposing business landscape
2. Create standards and certification procedures for battery
Table 2. OEM and second life actor collaborations for LIB repurposing.
Table 2. OEM and second life actor collaborations for LIB repurposing.
OEM2nd Life ActorsCollaboration Objective
Tier MobilityNunamTurn used batteries into new energy storage systems, which will then power small devices such as smartphones, fans or lamps.
SKODA AUTOIBG CeskoDevelop smart energy storage systems using second-life batteries from Electric Vehicles.
NissanBeeplanetManufacture low, medium and large-scale energy storage equipment from second-life batteries from Electric Vehicles.
Irizar e-mobilityIbil: Designer; Repsol: CommissionerDevelop 50 kW charging stations for Electric Vehicles with an energy storage system from Irizar e-mobility second-life batteries.
Nissan (Leaf)RelectrifyCombine repurposed batteries from Nissan Leaf vehicles with Relectrify BMS and Inverter technology to create a battery system.
BMW UKOff-Grid EnergyBMW Group UK will supply Off-Grid Energy and battery modules to create mobile power units, giving retired BMW and MINI EV batteries a second life.
FCA Italy S.p.A.Engie EPSFirst large-scale industrial application of V2G integrated with second-life batteries.
Volvo busStena’s Battery loopGive old batteries a second life in static energy storage projects.
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Basia, A.; Simeu-Abazi, Z.; Gascard, E.; Zwolinski, P. A Conceptual Framework Based on Current Directives to Design Lithium-Ion Battery Industrial Repurposing Models. Machines 2024, 12, 440. https://doi.org/10.3390/machines12070440

AMA Style

Basia A, Simeu-Abazi Z, Gascard E, Zwolinski P. A Conceptual Framework Based on Current Directives to Design Lithium-Ion Battery Industrial Repurposing Models. Machines. 2024; 12(7):440. https://doi.org/10.3390/machines12070440

Chicago/Turabian Style

Basia, Akash, Zineb Simeu-Abazi, Eric Gascard, and Peggy Zwolinski. 2024. "A Conceptual Framework Based on Current Directives to Design Lithium-Ion Battery Industrial Repurposing Models" Machines 12, no. 7: 440. https://doi.org/10.3390/machines12070440

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