Next Article in Journal
Psychological Aspects of Syncopes and Possible Association with Recurrency—The Role of Implantable Loop Recorders
Previous Article in Journal
Physical Activity and Sedentary Time in Korean Adults before and during the COVID-19 Pandemic Using Data from the Korea National Health and Nutritional Examination Survey
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
JPM
Volume 12
Issue 8
10.3390/jpm12081218
jpm-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

A Machine-Learning-Algorithm-Based Prediction Model for Psychotic Symptoms in Patients with Depressive Disorder

by
Kiwon Kim
1,†,
Je il Ryu
2,3,†,
Bong Ju Lee
4,
Euihyeon Na
5,
Yu-Tao Xiang
6,
Shigenobu Kanba
7,
Takahiro A. Kato
7,
Mian-Yoon Chong
8,
Shih-Ku Lin
9,
Ajit Avasthi
10,
Sandeep Grover
10,
Roy Abraham Kallivayalil
11,
Pornjira Pariwatcharakul
12,
Kok Yoon Chee
13,
Andi J. Tanra
14,
Chay-Hoon Tan
15,
Kang Sim
16,
Norman Sartorius
17,
Naotaka Shinfuku
18,
Yong Chon Park
19 and
Seon-Cheol Park
19,20,*add Show full author list remove Hide full author list
1
Department of Psychiatry, Kangdong Sacred Heart Hospital, Hallym University College of Medicine, Seoul 05355, Korea
2
Department of Neurosurgery, Hanyang University College of Medicine, Seoul 05355, Korea
3
Department of Neurosurgery, Hanyang University Guri Hospital, Guri 11923, Korea
4
Department of Psychiatry, Inje University Haeundae Paik Hospital, Busan 47392, Korea
5
Department of Psychiatry, Presbyterian Medical Center, Jeonju 54987, Korea
6
Unit of Psychiatry, Department of Public Health and Medicinal Administration, Institute of Translational Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Macao SAR 999078, China
7
Department of Neuropsychiatry, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan
8
Department of Psychiatry, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Kaohsiung & Chang Gung University School of Medicine, Taoyuan 83301, Taiwan
9
Psychiatry Center, Tapei City Hospital, Taipei 300, Taiwan
10
Department of Psychiatry, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh 133301, India
11
Pushpagiri Institute of Medical Sciences, Tiruvalla 689101, India
12
Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
13
Tunku Abdul Rahman Institute of Neurosciences, Kuala Lumpur 5600, Malaysia
14
Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Hasanuddin University, Makassar 90245, Indonesia
15
Department of Pharmacology, National University Hospital, Singapore 119074, Singapore
16
Institute of Mental Health, Buangkok Green Medical Park, Singapore 539747, Singapore
17
Association for the Improvement of Mental Health Programmes, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
18
Department of Social Welfare, School of Human Sciences, Seinan Gakuin University, Fukuoka 814-8511, Japan
19
Department of Psychiatry, Hanyang University College of Medicine, Seoul 04763, Korea
20
Department of Psychiatry, Hanyang University Guri Hospital, Guri 11923, Korea
 
add Show full affiliation list
 
remove Hide full affiliation list
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
J. Pers. Med. 2022, 12(8), 1218; https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm12081218
Submission received: 1 June 2022 / Revised: 19 July 2022 / Accepted: 24 July 2022 / Published: 26 July 2022
Browse Figures
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Psychotic symptoms are rarely concurrent with the clinical manifestations of depression. Additionally, whether psychotic major depression is a subtype of major depression or a clinical syndrome distinct from non-psychotic major depression remains controversial. Using data from the Research on Asian Psychotropic Prescription Patterns for Antidepressants, we developed a machine-learning-algorithm-based prediction model for concurrent psychotic symptoms in patients with depressive disorders. The advantages of machine learning algorithms include the easy identification of trends and patterns, handling of multi-dimensional and multi-faceted data, and wide application. Among 1171 patients with depressive disorders, those with psychotic symptoms were characterized by significantly higher rates of depressed mood, loss of interest and enjoyment, reduced energy and diminished activity, reduced self-esteem and self-confidence, ideas of guilt and unworthiness, psychomotor agitation or retardation, disturbed sleep, diminished appetite, and greater proportions of moderate and severe degrees of depression compared to patients without psychotic symptoms. The area under the curve was 0.823. The overall accuracy was 0.931 (95% confidence interval: 0.897–0.956). Severe depression (degree of depression) was the most important variable in the prediction model, followed by diminished appetite, subthreshold (degree of depression), ideas or acts of self-harm or suicide, outpatient status, age, psychomotor retardation or agitation, and others. In conclusion, the machine-learning-based model predicted concurrent psychotic symptoms in patients with major depression in connection with the “severity psychosis” hypothesis.

1. Introduction

Depressive disorders are an important issue in the field of mental health care [1]. Although psychotic symptoms are infrequently associated with depressive disorders [2,3,4], the clinical condition of depression accompanied by psychotic symptoms is termed “psychotic depression”. The Psychotic Depression Assessment Scale, which consists of six items from the Hamilton Melancholia Subscale and five items from the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale, is a psychometric assessment tool used to differentiate depression with psychotic features from major depressive disorder and evaluate the severity of psychotic major depression [5,6]. In addition, psychotic major depression has been defined according to the Kraepelinian dichotomous view. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, second edition (DSM-II), defines psychotic depressive reactions as severe depressive episodes in response to one or more identifiable stressors, in which depressive disorders with mood-incongruent delusions are considered a subtype of schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. The DSM-III and DSM-IV classify psychotic major depression as a subtype of severe depression or a severe variant of depression, according to the “severity psychosis” hypothesis that severe levels of depression are closely related to psychotic symptoms. However, in the DSM-5, with the rejection of the “severity psychosis” hypothesis, the specifier “with psychotic features” was added in connection with any level of depressive episodes, including dysthymia, mild and moderate depression, and severe depression [7,8,9,10,11,12,13]. Østergaard et al. [8] proposed that psychotic major depression can be defined as a distinctive diagnostic entity of “meta-syndrome,” including both unipolar and bipolar psychotic depression. However, concerning psychiatric taxonomy, it remains debatable whether psychotic major depression is a subtype of major depression or a clinical syndrome distinct from non-psychotic major depression.
Psychotic major depression is distinct from non-psychotic major depression as follows [10,11,12,13]. First, psychotic major depression is symptomatically characterized by a greater severity of the depressive episode, higher levels of psychomotor disturbances and appetite or weight loss, higher rates of rumination and insomnia, and greater deficits in cognitive performance compared to non-psychotic major depression [14,15,16,17,18]. Second, psychotic major depression is clinically characterized by a longer duration of each subsequent episode; increased vulnerability of conversion to bipolar disorder; greater familial prevalence of bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder; and greater rates of recurrence, suicide, and mortality compared to non-psychotic major depression [19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26]. Third, psychotic major depression is neurobiologically characterized by increased activity of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, smaller volume of the higher associative regions of the frontal and insular cortices, and lower activity of dopamine-β-hydroxylase compared to non-psychotic major depression [27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35]. Lastly, regarding pharmacological treatment, the combination of an antidepressant with an antipsychotic is recommended for patients with depression with psychotic features [36,37,38,39]. Additionally, a phase 3 trial reported that mifepristone, which is used to terminate early pregnancy by blocking progesterone action and is a potent reversible antagonist of glucocorticoid receptors, showed a rapid therapeutic response in patients with depression and psychotic symptoms [40].
In the context of precision medicine [41], individualized treatment and prevention of long-term complications and sequelae require the accurate detection of psychotic symptoms (i.e., delusions and hallucinations) in the clinical manifestations of depressive disorders. However, to our knowledge, few predictive models have been reported for concurrent psychotic symptoms in depression. Thus, the current study developed a machine-learning-algorithm-based prediction model for concurrent psychotic symptoms in patients with depressive disorders using data from the Research on Asian Psychotropic Prescription Patterns for Antidepressants (REAP-AD) survey, the largest international research collaboration on psychiatry in Asian regions [41,42,43].

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Overviews and Participants

The REAP-AD enrolled 2320 consecutive psychiatric patients who used antidepressants from March to June 2013. The patients were enrolled using a convenience sampling method from 39 research centers in 10 Asian countries and special administrative regions (SARs): namely, mainland China, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Singapore, Taiwan, and Thailand. This study has been described in detail elsewhere [42,43,44]. In addition, using the United Nations classification, the 10 Asian countries and SARs were geographically divided into eastern Asia (mainland China, Hong Kong, Japan, Korea, and Taiwan), southern Asia (India), and southeast Asia (Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand). Furthermore, using the World Bank list of economies, the countries and SARs were economically categorized as high-income (Hong Kong, Japan, Korea, Singapore, and Taiwan), upper-middle (China, Malaysia, and Thailand), and lower-middle income (India and Indonesia) and SARs [42,43,44]. The REAP-AD was approved by the Institutional Review Board of Taipei City Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan (receipt number: TCHIRB-1020206-E), and other participating centers. All participants provided written informed consent.
The current study used only data from participants meeting the following inclusion criteria: (i) confirmed psychiatric diagnosis of a depressive episode (F32) or recurrent depressive disorder (F33), under the 10th revision of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-10) Classification of Mental and Behavioral Disorders [45]; (ii) medication with antidepressants, coded as N06A under the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical classification system [46]; (iii) age >18 and <80 years; and (iv) availability of data on the presence or absence of psychotic symptoms. We excluded data from the following participants: (i) psychiatric comorbidity of organic mental disorders, schizophrenia, bipolar disorders, or intellectual disorder under the ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioral Disorders [45], and (ii) physical comorbidity of seizure disorders, other neurological disorders, or severe physical diseases. Under the ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioral Disorders [45], the specifier “with psychotic symptoms” can be coded only in severe depression but not in mild and moderate depression. However, as mentioned earlier, psychotic symptoms can be present in dysthymia, mild to moderate depression, and severe depression. The clinical condition of depression accompanied by concurrent psychotic symptoms is denoted as “psychotic depression”. Thus, irrespective of the presence or absence of concurrent psychotic symptoms, the ICD-10 diagnostic entities were coded exclusively for the severity of depressive episodes or depressive disorder. To increase the validity and reliability of the ICD-10 diagnoses, consensus meetings were held before the initiation of the REAP-AD survey. Finally, 1171 Asian patients with depressive episodes or recurrent depressive disorders were included in the current analysis.

2.2. Demographic Characteristics, Psychotic Symptoms, and Depressive Symptom Profiles

Age and sex were collected as demographic characteristics. The birth season was defined as described by Fountoulakis et al. [47] and Pjrek et al. [48] as follows: spring, March to May; summer, June to August; autumn, September to November; and winter, December to February. Concurrent psychotic symptoms (i.e., delusions and hallucinations) were defined based on the ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioral Disorders [45]. The 10 depressive symptom profiles (i.e., depressed mood, loss of interest and enjoyment, reduced energy and diminished activity, reduced concentration and attention, reduced self-esteem and self-confidence, ideas of guilt and unworthiness, psychomotor agitation or retardation, ideas or acts of self-harm or suicide, disturbed sleep, diminished appetite) were defined based on the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) guidelines for the Treatment and Management of Depression in Adults [49]. In addition, the degree of depression was operationally defined by the total number of depression symptoms and categorized into four groups based on NICE guidelines [49]: subthreshold (<4 symptoms), mild (4 symptoms), moderate (5–6 symptoms), and severe (>6 symptoms). Moreover, comorbid psychiatric symptoms (i.e., anxiety symptoms and somatic symptoms) and psychiatric comorbidity (i.e., mental and behavioral disorders due to psychoactive substance abuse [F1], neurotic, stress-related, and somatoform disorder [F4]) were defined based on the ICD-10 [45]. Admissions as outpatients or inpatients were also determined.

2.3. Variable Profiles for the Prediction Model of Concurrent Psychotic Symptoms

This study used sociodemographic data (i.e., region (eastern Asia, southern Asia, or southeastern Asia), income level (i.e., high, upper-middle, or lower-middle income level countries), age, sex, or season of birth (i.e., spring, summer, autumn, or winter)), the ten individual depressive symptom profiles, degree of depression (i.e., subthreshold, mild, moderate, or severe), comorbid anxiety or somatic symptoms, psychiatric comorbidity (i.e., substance use disorder [F1] or anxiety and somatoform disorder [F4]), and outpatient or inpatient admission as variables for the prediction model of concurrent psychotic symptoms.

2.4. Data Processing and Machine Learning

SAS Enterprise Guide 7.1 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA) was used to extract the necessary data from the REAP-AD dataset. R 3.3.0 [50] and RStudio 1.0.136 [51] were used for all subsequent analyses. The dataset was divided into training and test sets at a 7:3 ratio among the 1171 patients with depressive disorders. The synthetic minority oversampling technique [52] was used due to the low prevalence of psychotic symptoms in patients with depressive disorders. The data were not structurally transformed into the test set. Ten-fold cross-validation was used to train the entire training dataset. The area under the curve (AUC) of the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) was used to establish the performance of the prediction model for concurrent psychotic symptoms in patients with depressive disorder. In addition, the overall accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, negative predictive value, and positive predictive value (PPV) were calculated. The caret library was used to evaluate the performance indicators (i.e., hyperparameter tuning, confusion matrix composition, and AUC).
Although the decision tree model can provide an intuitive sense of variable importance and classification mechanisms with low computing cost, it is vulnerable to overfitting. Therefore, this study used a random forest because its predictive power is maximized when new data (i.e., test set) are provided rather than used for training by minimizing the overfitting of the decision tree [53]. A random forest is a collection of decision trees. A collection of 500 decision trees was generated and integrated in a random forest in this study. Given this advantage, practical problem-solving algorithms in various fields typically use random forests [54,55]. The principle of “mean decreases in accuracy” was used to calculate the variable importance to identify which variables contributed significantly to the optimization of the predictive model [56]. The importance of variable j was calculated according to the following process. Several cases were not sampled, which were termed “out-of-bag” because they were permitted to be sampled more than once for the same classifier by bagging.
The training performance of utilizing one of the trees contributes to the handing down of the out-of-sample to the tree and decreases the prediction accuracy. Along with the subsequent change in variable j among the out-of-bag samples at random, the accuracy was recalculated. Before and after permutation over all trees, averaging the gap in out-of-bag errors was used to calculate the raw score for the importance of variable j. Subsequently, the standardized deviation of the difference was used to return the score to normal. Finally, the score was reduced such that the minimum and maximum values were set to 0 and 100, respectively. The prediction performance of the out-of-bag portion of the data was recorded for each tree. The prediction performance was measured and recorded during each alternative permutation of the predictors. Based on all trees, the average value of the difference between the two prediction performances was obtained and normalized according to the standard error. The test data, which were not used in the training phase, were used to measure the final prediction performance.

3. Results

3.1. Participant Characteristics

A total of 1171 Asian patients with depressive disorders (240, 38, 142, 173, 38, 50, 130, 144, 144, and 107 Chinese, Hong Kong, Japanese, Korean, Singaporean, Taiwanese, Indian, Malaysian, Thai, and Indonesian patients, respectively) were evaluated (Table 1). Only 1.4% (n = 16) of the study participants presented with concurrent psychotic symptoms including delusions and/or hallucinations. Compared to those without psychotic symptoms, patients with depressive disorder psychotic symptoms were characterized by significantly greater rates of depressed mood (χ2 = 5.969, p = 0.015), loss of interest and enjoyment (χ2 = 5.216, p = 0.022), reduced energy and diminished activity (χ2 = 5.617, p = 0.018), reduced self-esteem and self-confidence (χ2 = 4.001, p = 0.045), ideas of guilt and unworthiness (χ2 = 9.527, p = 0.003), psychomotor agitation or retardation (χ2 = 6.879, p = 0.009), disturbed sleep (χ2 = 6.303, p = 0.012), diminished appetite (χ2 = 9.575, p = 0.002), and greater proportions of moderate and severe degrees of depression (χ2 = 21.104, p < 0.0001).

3.2. Prediction Model Performance for Concurrent Psychotic Symptoms and Its Variable Importance

A collection of 500 decision trees, which were generated in this analysis, was used by a random forest. An example of 500 decision trees was presented, as shown in Figure 1. The AUC under the ROC curve was 0.823 (Figure 2). The overall accuracy was 0.931 (95% confidence interval, 0.897–0.956), the sensitivity was 0.047, the specificity was 0.993, the positive predictive value was 0.333, and the negative predictive value was 0.937. Severe levels of depression (degree of depression) were the most important variables in the prediction model for concurrent psychotic symptoms, followed by diminished appetite, subthreshold (degree of depression), ideas or acts of self-harm or suicide, outpatient status, age, psychomotor retardation or agitation, and others (Figure 3).

4. Discussion

In this study, severe depression (degree of depression) was the most important variable in the prediction model, showing the highest statistical coefficient (χ2 = 21.104) among the prediction model variables. This finding was also consistent with the “severity psychosis” hypothesis [7,8,9,10,11,12,13]. In the ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioral Disorders [45], the specifier “with psychotic symptoms” is permitted only for severe depression but not for mild depression and moderate depression, based on the “severity psychosis” hypothesis. However, Østergaard et al. [9] reported that depression was weakly correlated with hallucinations and delusions in 357 patients with severe depression. Thus, psychotic depression may be a clinical syndrome distinct from non-psychotic depression. As such, this finding may be attributed to the possibility that concurrent psychotic symptoms are dependent on the severity of depression or that the specifier “with psychotic symptoms” is coded only for severe levels of depression in the operational definition of the ICD-10 [45]. Moreover, the specifier “with psychotic symptoms” will be coded not only for severe depressive episodes but also for moderate depressive episodes in the ICD-11 Coding Tool [57]. Further studies based on the diagnostic system independent of the “severity psychosis” hypothesis may be required to clarify concurrent psychotic symptoms in patients with depressive disorders. In addition, subthreshold depression and outpatient admission were the third and fourth most important variables in the prediction model, respectively. These findings are also related to the “severity psychosis” hypothesis.
Depressive symptom profiles, including diminished appetite, ideas or acts of self-harm or suicide, psychomotor agitation or retardation, and reduced self-esteem and self-confidence, were important variables in the prediction model. In addition to psychotic symptoms, other clinical characteristics can also be hallmarks differentiating psychotic from non-psychotic major depression [9]. Our findings are consistent with the significantly higher level of psychomotor disturbances and appetite or weight loss and greater rates of suicide and mortality in patients with psychotic major depression compared to those without [10,11,12,13]. However, although depressed mood, reduced energy, diminished activity, and loss of interest and enjoyment are the core symptoms of depressive episodes in the ICD1-10 [45], it is remarkable that these traits were relatively less important variables than other depressive symptom profiles in the prediction model. Thus, these findings cannot be explained easily. However, they can partly support psychotic major depression as a clinical syndrome distinct from non-psychotic major depression, but not a subtype of major depression.
In addition, age was a relatively important variable in the prediction model. To our knowledge, a relationship between age and psychotic symptoms has rarely been reported in patients with major depression; however, several studies have reported the relationship between the age of onset and psychotic symptoms [58]. Our findings are partly supported by a previous report that late-onset elderly depression is associated with more severe depression, psychic anxiety, and gastrointestinal symptoms compared to other age of onset groups [58].
Remarkably, winter and spring as seasons of birth were more important variables than summer and autumn in the prediction model. This is consistent with a previous report of higher seasonality of winter or spring births in patients with schizophrenia compared to the general population [59]. Although the relationship between birth season and depressive symptomatology is controversial [47,48,60], our findings support the trend of a relationship between the season of birth and psychotic symptoms in patients with major depression. An AUC of 0.800–0.900 was considered an acceptable level [61]. Concurrent psychotic symptoms were present only among the Chinese, Japanese, Indian, and Thai patients with depressive disorders. Thus, regional codes (i.e., eastern, southern, or southeastern) and income level codes (i.e., high, upper-middle, or lower-middle income level countries) were included among the variable profiles for the prediction model of the concurrent psychotic symptoms. However, as shown in Figure 3, the region and income level codes were relatively less important variables in the prediction model of psychotic symptoms in patients with depressive disorder. These findings suggest that concurrent psychotic symptoms can be predicted by ethnicity or cultural influences, as well as other sociodemographic and clinical characteristics. Thus, the prediction model of concurrent psychotic symptoms in this study may have been slightly influenced by sampling bias or a factor related to country. In this study, the AUC and overall accuracy of the prediction model were 0.823 and 0.937, respectively, indicating the acceptable predictive performance of the model. However, the model showed low sensitivity and, thus, requires further improvement. As psychotic symptoms have rarely been evaluated, further studies are needed that utilize a strict epidemiological perspective and do not use a convenient sampling method. However, few predictive models exist for concurrent psychotic symptoms in patients with major depression.
Our study had several limitations. First, only 1.4% (n = 16) of 1171 patients with depressive disorders presented with concurrent psychotic symptoms. Because of the low rate of concurrent psychotic symptoms, oversampling was required to develop the prediction model [62]. Thus, we applied random oversampling, which involves the random selection of examples from the minority class with replacement and their addition to the training set. Second, the cross-sectional design of the REAP-AD survey made it difficult to elucidate the direction of causation in the prediction model. Third, while our study individually evaluated delusions and hallucinations, the overall psychotic symptoms were evaluated as dichotomous values. Thus, we did not examine predictive models specific to delusions and hallucinations. Further studies are required to develop individual models for specific psychotic symptoms including delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, disorganized behaviors, and negative symptoms. Fourth, depressive symptom profiles (i.e., depressed mood, loss of interest and enjoyment, reduced energy and diminished activity, reduced concentration and attention, reduced self-esteem and self-confidence, ideas of guilt and unworthiness, psychomotor agitation or retardation, ideas or acts of self-harm or suicide, disturbed sleep, and diminished appetite) and other symptom profiles (i.e., anxiety symptoms, somatic symptoms) were evaluated as dichotomous variables rather than continuous variables. Therefore, the importance of depressive and other symptom profiles in the prediction model may be affected by their manner of evaluation. Fifth, we cannot rule out the possibility that our findings were affected by a selection bias. As mentioned earlier, the REAP-AD survey used a convenience sampling method instead of a strict epidemiological method, although it is one of the largest international collaborative pharmaco-epidemiological studies. Further studies using structural assessment tools are needed to examine psychotic symptoms, depressive symptom profiles, and other symptom profiles in a strict epidemiological manner. In our study, few patients had psychotic symptoms compared to the whole study sample. This may have affected the prediction model. Despite these limitations, our findings provide a useful basis for further research to establish a predictive model for concurrent psychotic symptoms among Asian patients with depressive disorders.

5. Conclusions

The prediction model was clinically applicable for identifying concurrent psychotic symptoms among patients with major depression, whereas we rarely observed concurrent psychotic symptoms. Although the sensitivity requires improvement, the model can be used to detect concurrent psychotic symptoms in patients with major depression. In addition, these findings can serve as a basis for further studies to develop prediction models for concurrent psychotic symptoms in patients with major depression.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, C.-H.T., N.S. (Norman Sartorius), N.S. (Naotaka Shinfuku), Y.-T.X., Y.C.P. and S.-C.P.; methodology, C.-H.T., N.S. (Norman Sartorius), N.S. (Naotaka Shinfuku), Y.-T.X., Y.C.P. and S.-C.P.; software, K.K., J.i.R. and S.-C.P.; validation, K.K., J.i.R. and S.-C.P.; formal analysis, K.K., Y.-T.X., J.i.R. and S.-C.P.; investigation, K.K., J.i.R., B.J.L., E.N., K.S., T.A.K., M.-Y.C., S.-K.L., A.A., S.G., R.A.K., P.P., K.Y.C., A.J.T., C.-H.T., N.S. (Norman Sartorius), S.K., N.S. (Naotaka Shinfuku), Y.C.P. and S.-C.P.; resources, K.K., J.i.R., B.J.L., E.N., K.S., T.A.K., M.-Y.C., S.-K.L., A.A., S.G., R.A.K., P.P., K.Y.C., A.J.T., C.-H.T., N.S. (Norman Sartorius), S.K., N.S. (Naotaka Shinfuku), Y.C.P. and S.-C.P.; data curation, K.S., T.A.K., M.-Y.C., S.-K.L., Y.-T.X., A.A., S.G., R.A.K., P.P., K.Y.C., A.J.T., C.-H.T., N.S. (Norman Sartorius), S.K., N.S. (Naotaka Shinfuku), Y.C.P. and S.-C.P.; writing—original draft preparation, K.K., J.i.R. and S.-C.P.; writing—review and editing, all authors; visualization, K.K., J.i.R. and S.-C.P.; supervision, K.K., J.i.R. and S.-C.P.; project administration, all authors; funding acquisition, J.i.R. and S.-C.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by the research fund of Hanyang University (HY- 202100000003293).

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the Institutional Review Board of Taipei City Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan (receipt number: TCHIRB-1020206-E).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all study subjects.

Data Availability Statement

Data sharing not applicable.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank their REAP-AP colleagues. We also thank Jinseob Kim for his valuable help with machine learning.

Conflicts of Interest

All authors have declared no competing or potential conflict of interest.

References

  1. Park, S.-C. Neurogenesis and antidepressant action. Cell Tissue Res. 2019, 377, 95–106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  2. Ohayon, M.M.; Schatzberg, A.F. Prevalence of Depressive Episodes with Psychotic Features in the General Population. Am. J. Psychiatry 2002, 159, 1855–1861. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  3. Johnson, J.; Horwath, E.; Weissman, M.M. The validity of major depressive disorder with psychotic features based on a community study. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 1991, 48, 1075–1081. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Coryell, W.; Pfohl, B.; Zimmerman, M. The Clinical and Neuroendocrine Features of Psychotic Depression. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 1984, 172, 521–528. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  5. Østergaard, S.D.; Meyers, B.S.; Flint, A.J.; Mulsant, B.H.; Whyte, E.M.; Ulbricht, C.M.; Bech, P.; Rothschild, A.J.; STOP-PD Study Group. Measuring psychotic depression. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 2013, 129, 211–220. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  6. Østergaard, S.D.; Meyers, B.S.; Flint, A.J.; Mulsant, B.H.; Whyte, E.M.; Ulbricht, C.M.; Bech, P.; Rothschild, A.J.; on behalf of the STOP-PD Study Group. Measuring treatment response in psychotic depression: The Psychotic Depression Assessment Scale (PDAS) takes both depressive and psychotic symptoms into account. J. Affect. Disord. 2014, 160, 68–73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  7. Schatzberg, A.F.; Rothschild, A.J. Psychotic (delusional) major depression: Should it be included as a distinct syndrome in DSM-IV? Am. J. Psychiatry 1992, 149, 733–745. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Østergaard, S.D.; Rothschild, A.J.; Uggerby, P.; Munk-Jørgensen, P.; Bech, P.; Mors, O. Considerations on the ICD-11 Classification of Psychotic Depression. Psychother. Psychosom. 2012, 81, 135–144. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Stergaard, S.D.; Bille, J.; Søltoft, H.; Lauge, N.; Bech, P. The validity of the severity-psychosis hypothesis in depression. J. Affect. Disord. 2012, 140, 48–56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Park, S.-C.; Lee, H.-Y.; Sakong, J.-K.; Jun, T.-Y.; Lee, M.-S.; Kim, J.-M.; Kim, J.-B.; Yim, H.-W.; Park, Y.C. Distinctive Clinical Correlates of Psychotic Major Depression: The CRESCEND Study. Psychiatry Investig. 2014, 11, 281–289. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  11. Park, S.-C.; Choi, J.; Kim, J.-M.; Jun, T.-Y.; Lee, M.-S.; Kim, J.-B.; Yim, H.-W.; Park, Y.C. Is the Psychotic Depression Assessment Scale a useful diagnostic tool? The CRESCEND study. J. Affect. Disord. 2014, 166, 79–85. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  12. Park, S.-C.; Østergaard, S.D.; Choi, J.; Kim, J.-M.; Jun, T.-Y.; Lee, M.-S.; Kim, J.-B.; Yim, H.-W.; Park, Y.C. Is the BPRS-5 subscale of the psychotic depression assessment scale a reliable screening tool for psychotic depression? Results from the CRESCEND Study. J. Affect. Disord. 2015, 174, 188–191. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  13. Park, S.-C.; Jang, E.Y.; Kim, J.-M.; Jun, T.-Y.; Lee, M.-S.; Kim, J.-B.; Yim, H.-W.; Park, Y.C. Clinical Validation of the Psychotic Depression Assessment Scale, Hamilton Depression Rating Scale-6, and Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale-5: Results from the Clinical Research Center for Depression Study. Psychiatry Investig. 2017, 14, 568–576. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  14. Glassman, A.H.; Roose, S.P. Delusional depression: A distinct clinical entity? Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 1981, 138, 831–833. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Lykouras, E.; Malliaras, D.; Christodoulou, G.N.; Papakostas, Y.; Voulgari, A.; Tzonou, A.; Stefanis, C. Delusional depression: Phenomenology and response to treatment. A prospective study. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 1986, 73, 324–329. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Frances, A.; Brown, R.P.; Kocsis, J.H.; Mann, J.J. Psychotic depression: A separate entity? Am. J. Psychiatry 1981, 138, 831–833. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Zaninotto, L.; Guglielmo, R.; Calati, R.; Ioime, L.; Camardese, G.; Janiri, L.; Bria, P.; Serretti, A. Cognitive markers of psychotic unipolar depression: A meta-analytic study. J. Affect. Disord. 2015, 174, 580–588. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Hill, S.K.; Keshavan, M.S.; Thase, M.E.; Sweeney, J.A. Neuropsychological Dysfunction in Antipsychotic-Naive First-Episode Unipolar Psychotic Depression. Am. J. Psychiatry 2004, 161, 996–1003. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Coryell, W.; Endicott, J.; Keller, M. The importance of psychotic features to major depression: Course and outcome during a 2-year follow-up. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 1987, 75, 78–85. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Østergaard, S.D.; Straszek, S.; Petrides, G.; Skadhede, S.; Jensen, S.O.W.; Nielsen, J.; Munk-Jørgensen, P. Risk factors for conversion from unipolar psychotic depression to bipolar disorder. Bipolar Disord. 2014, 16, 180–189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Østergaard, S.D.; Bertelsen, A.; Nielsen, J.; Mors, O.; Petrides, G. The association between psychotic mania, psychotic depression and mixed affective episodes among 14,529 patients with bipolar disorder. J. Affect. Disord. 2013, 147, 44–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  22. Leckman, J.F.; Weissman, M.; Caruso, K.A.; Merikangas, K.R.; Pauls, D.L.; Prusoff, B.A.; Kidd, K.K. Subtypes of depression. Family study perspective. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 1984, 41, 833–838. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  23. Nelson, W.H.; Khan, A.; Orr, W.W., Jr. Delusional depression, Phenomenology, neuroendocrine and tricyclic antidepressant response. J. Affect. Disord. 1984, 6, 297–306. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Østergaard, S.D.; Waltoft, B.L.; Mortensen, P.B.; Mors, O. Environmental and familial risk factors for psychotic and non-psychotic severe depression. J. Affect. Disord. 2013, 147, 232–240. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  25. Vythilingam, M.; Chen, J.; Bremner, J.D.; Mazure, C.M.; Maciejewski, P.K.; Nelson, J.C. Psychotic Depression and Mortality. Am. J. Psychiatry 2003, 160, 574–576. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Zalpuri, I.; Rothschild, A. Does psychosis increase the risk of suicide in patients with major depression? A systemic review. J. Affect. Disord. 2016, 98, 23–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  27. Anton, R.F. Urinary free cortisol in psychotic depression. Biol. Psychiatry 1987, 22, 24–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Nelson, J.C.; Davis, J.M. DST Studies in Psychotic Depression: A Meta-Analysis. Am. J. Psychiatry 1997, 154, 1497–1503. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Rothschild, A.J.; Schatzberg, A.F.; Rosenbaum, A.H.; Stahl, J.B.; Cole, J.O. The Dexamethasone Suppression Test as a Discriminator among Subtypes of Psychotic Patients. Br. J. Psychiatry 1982, 141, 471–474. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Schatzberg, A.F.; Rothschild, A.J.; Stahl, J.B.; Bond, T.C.; Rosenbaum, A.H.; Lofgren, S.B.; MacLaughlin, R.A.; Sullivan, M.A.; Cole, J.O. The dexamethasone suppression test: Identification of subtypes of depression. Am. J. Psychiatry 1983, 140, 88–91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Kim, D.K.; Kim, B.L.; Sohn, S.E.; Lim, S.W.; Na, D.G.; Paik, C.H.; Krishnan, K.R.R.; Carroll, B.J. Candidate neuroanatomic substrates of psychosis in old-aged depression. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 1999, 23, 793–807. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  32. Salokangas, R.K.R.; Cannon, T.; van Erp, T.; Ilonen, T.; Taiminen, T.; Karlsson, H.; Lauerma, H.; Leinonen, K.M.; Wallenius, E.; Kaljonen, A.; et al. Structural magnetic resonance imaging in patients with first-episode schizophrenia, psychotic and severe non-psychotic depression and healthy controls: Results of the schizophrenia and affective psychoses (SAP) project. Br. J. Psychiatry 2002, 43, S58–S65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  33. Simpson, S.; Baldwin, R.C.; Jackson, A.; Burns, A. The differentiation of DSM-III-R psychotic depression in later life from nonpsychotic depression: Comparisons of brain changes measured by multispectral analysis of magnetic resonance brain images, neuropsychological findings, and clinical features. Biol. Psychiatry 1999, 45, 193–204. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Cubells, J.F.; Price, L.H.; Meyers, B.A.; Anderson, G.M.; Zabetian, C.P.; Alexopoulos, G.S.; Nelson, J.C.; Sanacora, G.; Kirwin, P.; Carpenter, L.; et al. Genotype-controlled analysis of plasma dopamine beta-hydroxylase activity in psychotic unipolar major depression. Biol. Psychiatry 2002, 51, 358–364. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Meyers, B.S.; Alexopoulos, G.S.; Kakuma, T.; Tirumalasetti, F.; Gabriele, M.; Alpert, S.; Bowden, C.; Meltzer, H.Y. Decreased dopamine beta-hyrodoxylase activity in unipolar geriatirc delusional depression. Biol. Psychiatry 1999, 45, 448–452. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Leadholm, A.K.; Rothschild, A.J.; Nolen, W.A.; Bech, P.; Munk-Jørgensen, P.; Østergaard, S.D. The treatment of psychotic depression: Is there consensus among guidelines and psychiatrists? J. Affect. Disord. 2013, 145, 214–220. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  37. Wijkstra, J.; Lijmer, J.; Burger, H.; Cipriani, A.; Geddes, J.; Nolen, W.A. Pharmacological treatment for psychotic depression. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2015, 7, CD004044. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  38. Won, E.; Park, S.-C.; Han, K.-M.; Sung, S.-H.; Lee, H.-Y.; Paik, J.-W.; Jeon, H.J.; Lee, M.-S.; Shim, S.-H.; Ko, Y.-H.; et al. Evidence-Based, Pharmacological Treatment Guideline for Depression in Korea, Revised Edition. J. Korean Med Sci. 2014, 29, 468–484. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  39. Seo, J.S.; Song, H.R.; Bin Lee, H.; Park, Y.-M.; Hong, J.-W.; Kim, W.; Wang, H.-R.; Lim, E.-S.; Jeong, J.-H.; Jon, D.-I.; et al. The Korean medication algorithm for depressive disorder: Second revision. J. Affect. Disord. 2014, 167, 312–321. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Block, T.S.; Kushner, H.; Kalin, N.; Nelson, C.; Belanoff, J.; Schatzberg, A. Combined Analysis of Mifepristone for Psychotic Depression: Plasma Levels Associated with Clinical Response. Biol. Psychiatry 2018, 84, 46–54. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  41. Arns, M.; van Dijk, H.; Luykx, J.J.; van Wingen, G.; Olbrich, S. Stratified psychiatry: Tomorrow’s precision psychiatry? Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. 2022, 55, 14–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  42. Park, S.-C.; Shinfuku, N.; Maramis, M.M.; Lee, M.-S.; Park, Y.C. Adjunctive Antipsychotic Prescriptions for Outpatients with Depressive Disorders in Asia: The Research on Asian Psychotropic Prescription Patterns for Antidepressants (REAP-AD) Study. Am. J. Psychiatry 2015, 172, 684–685. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Park, S.-C.; Lee, M.S.; Shinfuku, N.; Sartorius, N.; Park, Y.C. Gender differences in depressive symptom profiles and patterns of psychotropic drug usage in Asian patients with depression: Findings from the Research on Asian Psychotropic Prescription Patterns for Antidepressants (REAP-AD) study. Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry 2015, 49, 833–841. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  44. Park, S.; Jang, E.Y.; Xiang, Y.; Kanba, S.; Kato, T.A.; Chong, M.; Lin, S.; Yang, S.; Avasthi, A.; Grover, S.; et al. Network analysis of the depressive symptom profiles in Asian patients with depressive disorders: Findings from the Research on Asian Psychotropic Prescription Patterns for Antidepressants (REAP-AD). Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 2020, 74, 344–353. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  45. World Health Organization. The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioral Disorders, Clinical Descriptions and Diagnostic Guidelines; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 1992. [Google Scholar]
  46. World Health Organization. Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical (ATC) Classification System. Available online: https://www.whocc.no/atc/structure_and_principles/ (accessed on 2 May 2022).
  47. Fountoulakis, K.N.; Iacovides, A.; Karamouzis, M.; Kaprinis, G.S.; Ierodiakonou, C. Season of birth, clinical manifestations and Dexamethasone Suppression Test in unipolar major depression. Ann. Gen. Psychiatry 2007, 6, 20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  48. Pjrek, E.; Winkler, D.; Heiden, A.; Praschak-Rieder, N.; Willeit, M.; Konstantinidis, A.; Stastny, J.; Kasper, S. Seasonality of birth in seasonal affective disorder. J. Clin. Psychiatry 2004, 65, 1389–1393. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. Depression in Adults: The Treatment and Management of Depression in Adults; National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence: London, UK, 2009; p. 63. [Google Scholar]
  50. R core Team. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing; R Foundation for Statistical Computing: Vienna, Austria, 2016. [Google Scholar]
  51. RStudio Team. RStudio: Intergrated Development for R.; RStudio, Inc.: Boston, MA, USA, 2012. [Google Scholar]
  52. Chawla, N.V.; Bowyer, K.W.; Hall, L.O.; Kegelmeyer, W.P. SMOTE: Synthetic Minority Over-sampling Technique. J. Artif. Intell. Res. 2002, 16, 321–357. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Breiman, L. Random Forest. Mach. Learn. 2001, 45, 5–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  54. Erickson, J.; Abbott, K.; Susienka, L. Automatic address validation and health record review to identify homeless Social Security disability applicants. J. Biomed. Inform. 2018, 82, 41–46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Zhang, L.; Fabbri, D.; Lasko, T.A.; Ehrenfeld, J.M.; Wanderer, J.P. A System for Automated Determination of Perioperative Patient Acuity. J. Med Syst. 2018, 42, 123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Hastie, T.; Tibshirani, R.; Friedman, J. The Elements of Statistical Learning, 2nd ed.; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2017; pp. 593–594. [Google Scholar]
  57. World Health Organization. International Classification of Diseases, 11th revision (ICD-11): The Global Standard for Diagnostic Health Information. Available online: https://icd.who.int/ct11/icd11_mms/en/release/ (accessed on 2 May 2022).
  58. Gournellis, R.; Oulis, P.; Rizos, E.; Chourdaki, E.; Gouzaris, A.; Lykouras, L. Clinical correlates of age of onset in psychotic depression. Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr. 2011, 52, 94–98. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Davies, G.; Welham, J.; Chant, D.; Torrey, E.F.; McGrath, J. A systematic review and meta-analysis of Northern Hemisphere season of birth studies in schizophrenia. Schizophr. Bull. 2003, 29, 587–593. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  60. Csajbók, Z.; Kagstrom, A.; Cermakova, P. Season of birth has no effect on symptoms of depression and anxiety in older adults. Sci. Rep. 2022, 12, 6823. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  61. Hosmer, D.W.; Lemeshow, S. Applied Logistic Regression, 2nd ed.; John Wiley and Sons: New York, NY, USA, 2000; Chapter 5; pp. 160–164. [Google Scholar]
  62. Zhou, R.; Yin, W.; Li, W.; Wang, Y.; Lu, J.; Li, Z.; Hu, X. Prediction Model for Infectious Disease Health Literacy Based on Synthetic Minority Oversampling Technique Algorithm. Comput. Math. Methods Med. 2022, 2022, 8498159. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Jpm 12 01218 g001 550
Figure 1. An example of a collection of 500 decision trees in a random forest.
Figure 1. An example of a collection of 500 decision trees in a random forest.
Jpm 12 01218 g001
Jpm 12 01218 g002 550
Figure 2. Area under the curve (AUC) of the receiver operating characteristic for predicting psychotic symptoms in patients with depressive disorder (n = 1711).
Figure 2. Area under the curve (AUC) of the receiver operating characteristic for predicting psychotic symptoms in patients with depressive disorder (n = 1711).
Jpm 12 01218 g002
Jpm 12 01218 g003 550
Figure 3. Variable importance in the prediction model of psychotic symptoms in patients with depressive disorder (n = 1711).
Figure 3. Variable importance in the prediction model of psychotic symptoms in patients with depressive disorder (n = 1711).
Jpm 12 01218 g003
Table
Table 1. Patient characteristics (n = 1711).
Table 1. Patient characteristics (n = 1711).
Total (n = 1171)Concurrent Psychotic SymptomsStatistical Coefficientp-Value
Presence (n = 16)Absence (n = 1155)
Country/SAR χ2 = 22.8520.007
China, n (%)240 (20.5)4 (25.0)236 (20.4)
Hong Kong, n (%)38 (9.1)0 (0.0)28 (9.3)
Japan, n (%)142 (12.1)5 (31.3)137 (11.9)
Korea, n (%)173 (14.8)0 (0.0)183 (15.0)
Singapore, n (%)38 (3.2)0 (0.0)38 (3.3)
Taiwan, n (%)50 (4.3)0 (0.0)50 (3.3)
India, n (%)130 (11.1)6 (37.5)124 (10.7)
Malaysia, n (%)109 (9.3)0 (0.0)109 (9.4)
Thailand, n (%)144 (12.3)1 (6.3)143 (12.4)
Indonesia, n (%)107 (9.1)0 (0.0)107 (9.3)
Age48.4 (16.9)45.3 (17.7)48.4 (16.9)t = −0.7070.490
Male, n (%)477 (40.7)7 (43.8)470 (40.7)χ2 = 0.0610.805
Outpatient, n (%)843 (72.0)9 (56.3)834 (72.2)χ2 = 1.9930.158
Season of birth † χ2 = 5.8530.119
Spring, n (%)251 (23.6)1 (10.0)250 (23.7)
Summer, n (%)261 (24.6)4 (40.0)257 (24.4)
Autumn, n (%)251 (23.6)0 (0.0)251 (23.8)
Winter, n (%)300 (28.2)5 (50.0)295 (28.0)
Depressive symptom profiles
Depressed mood, n (%)856 (73.1)16 (100.0)840 (98.1)χ2 = 5.9690.015
Loss of interest and enjoyment, n (%)620 (52.9)13 (81.3)607 (52.6)χ2 = 5.2160.022
Reduced energy and diminished activity, n (%)535 (45.7)12 (75.0)523 (45.3)χ2 = 5.6170.018
Reduced concentration and attention, n (%)347 (29.6)5 (31.3)342 (29.6)χ2 = 0.0200.887
Reduced self-esteem and self-confidence, n (%)268 (22.9)7 (43.8)261 (22.6)χ2 = 4.0010.045
Ideas of guilt and unworthiness, n (%)185 (15.8)7 (43.8)178 (15.4)χ2 = 9.5270.002
Psychomotor agitation or retardation, n (%)266 (22.7)8 (50.0)258 (22.3)χ2 = 6.8790.009
Ideas or acts of self-harm or suicide, n (%)267 (22.8)6 (37.5)261 (22.6)χ2 = 1.9910.158
Disturbed sleep, n (%)747 (63.8)15 (93.8)732 (63.4)χ2 = 6.3030.012
Diminished appetite, n (%)383 (32.7)11 (68.8)372 (32.2)χ2 = 9.5750.002
Degree of depression χ2 = 21.104<0.0001
Subthreshold, n (%)533 (45.5)1 (6.3)532 (46.1)
Mild, n (%)211 (18.0)3 (18.8)208 (18.0)
Moderate, n (%)296 (25.3)5 (31.3)291 (25.2)
Severe, n (%)131 (11.2)7 (43.8)124 (10.7)
Comorbid symptom profiles
Anxiety symptoms, n (%)20 (1.7)0 (0.0)20 (1.7)χ2 = 0.2820.595
Somatic symptoms, n (%)15 (1.3)0 (0.0)15 (1.3)χ2 = 0.2100.646
Psychiatric comorbidity
Anxiety and somatoform disorder (F4), n (%)87 (7.4)1 (6.3)86 (7.4)χ2 = 0.0330.856
Substance use disorder (F1), n (%)20 (1.7)0 (0.0)20 (1.7)χ2 = 0.2820.595
†n = 1063; SAR, special administrative region.
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Kim, K.; Ryu, J.i.; Lee, B.J.; Na, E.; Xiang, Y.-T.; Kanba, S.; Kato, T.A.; Chong, M.-Y.; Lin, S.-K.; Avasthi, A.; et al. A Machine-Learning-Algorithm-Based Prediction Model for Psychotic Symptoms in Patients with Depressive Disorder. J. Pers. Med. 2022, 12, 1218. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm12081218

AMA Style

Kim K, Ryu Ji, Lee BJ, Na E, Xiang Y-T, Kanba S, Kato TA, Chong M-Y, Lin S-K, Avasthi A, et al. A Machine-Learning-Algorithm-Based Prediction Model for Psychotic Symptoms in Patients with Depressive Disorder. Journal of Personalized Medicine. 2022; 12(8):1218. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm12081218

Chicago/Turabian Style

Kim, Kiwon, Je il Ryu, Bong Ju Lee, Euihyeon Na, Yu-Tao Xiang, Shigenobu Kanba, Takahiro A. Kato, Mian-Yoon Chong, Shih-Ku Lin, Ajit Avasthi, and et al. 2022. "A Machine-Learning-Algorithm-Based Prediction Model for Psychotic Symptoms in Patients with Depressive Disorder" Journal of Personalized Medicine 12, no. 8: 1218. https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm12081218

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop