Communication with Disabled Fans at Sports Events: Approaches, Challenges, and Opportunities

Abstract

This study investigates how effectively European football clubs communicate and implement accessibility features for disabled fans, aiming to develop a comprehensive framework for evaluating these practices. Using a multi-phase research design, the study analyzes disability support systems through semi-structured interviews with representatives from eleven European football clubs and a systematic analysis of club documentation. The methodology combined traditional qualitative analysis with large language model (LLM)-assisted content analysis, enabling robust identification of thematic patterns and performance indicators. Our findings reveal significant disparities in disability support practices, with larger clubs demonstrating structured approaches through dedicated Disability Access Officers (DAOs) and comprehensive communication strategies. Analysis identified three distinct performance tiers: Elite Performers, primarily well-resourced clubs with advanced systems; Solid Performers, mid-tier clubs with established frameworks; and Developing Systems, smaller organizations with emerging support structures. We present a validated Fan Communication Model incorporating key weighted criteria, including infrastructure, dedicated personnel, engagement, specific adaptations, ticketing, challenge management, and feedback systems. This model provides a standardized framework for evaluating disability support communication in football organizations. The research demonstrates the importance of integrating technological solutions with human-centered approaches while maintaining universal design principles. Our findings contribute to the sports accessibility literature and provide evidence-based recommendations for football organizations seeking to enhance their communication with disabled fans.

1. Introduction

Sports play a key role in modern society as they enable the connection of individuals, the expression of identity, and the establishment of emotional bonds between people. For many, attending sporting events, especially football matches, is an important part of social life and a sense of community. Football is more than just a sport, as it is often described as a place where social bonds are established, and fans of different backgrounds, ages, and abilities come together. However, fans with disabilities face many challenges in accessing these events and participating in fan life.

According to the estimates of the World Health Organization (WHO), there are approximately 650 million people with disabilities in the world, which means that more than 10% of the world’s population faces various forms of physical or sensory barriers [1]. In the European Union, this number reaches 20 to 25% of the population, which clearly shows the extent of the challenge of ensuring accessibility for such a large part of the population. The UN International Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, one of the key global legislative initiatives in this area, emphasizes the importance of ensuring accessibility to all parts of social life, including sporting events, as one of the fundamental human rights [2]. This means that sports organizations must ensure not only physical accessibility to the venues but also appropriate communication that will enable disabled people to have equal access to information, services, and the event experience.

Disability, which in the past was considered mainly as an individual health problem, is today also understood as a social problem. The social model of disability, which has replaced the predominantly medical model, emphasizes that disability is the result of social barriers, not just the physical or sensory limitations of the individual. According to this model, it is the task of society to remove these barriers to enable disabled people to participate equally in all aspects of social life, including sports [3]. In this context, the issue of communication between football organizations and disabled fans becomes crucial for ensuring equal access to sporting events.

As one of the leading sports organizations in football, UEFA has taken important steps to include fans with disabilities. UEFA has developed guidelines that include stadium accessibility and tailored communication for disabled fans, such as the Handbook for Disabled Officials, which addresses all aspects of accessibility at football events [4]. Despite this, research shows that fans with disabilities still often face a range of barriers, including poor access to information, poor physical infrastructure, and social exclusion [5].

Communication is one of the key factors influencing the inclusion of disabled people in social life and sports. Despite legislative and political frameworks, such as the European Disability Strategy 2021–2030, which emphasizes the importance of equality and inclusion of disabled people in all areas of life, challenges remain in implementing these policies [6]. Ensuring that sports events are accessible to people with disabilities requires not only the adaptation of the physical infrastructure but also changes in how sports organizations communicate with this specific public. Research has shown that a lack of communication often prevents disabled fans from having equal access to information about events and access options [7].

Technological progress in recent years has enabled many innovations that can significantly improve accessibility to sports events. Smartphone applications that offer customized accessibility information, audio descriptions for the blind and visually impaired, and live captioning for the deaf and hard of hearing are some examples of technical solutions that enable better inclusion of people with disabilities at sporting events [8]. These innovations facilitate access to information and contribute to a more comprehensive experience for fans with disabilities. Nevertheless, technological solutions must be implemented with structural changes and improved communication, as technology alone cannot solve all accessibility problems [9].

An important issue in communication with disabled fans is also the issue of legislation and policy. Several important measures have been taken at the European level, including the European Union guidelines and initiatives such as the UN International Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, which emphasizes the need to ensure accessibility to all parts of social life, including sports [6]. Sports organizations such as UEFA have adopted these guidelines and developed policies to ensure that football stadiums are accessible to fans with disabilities. The UEFA handbook for disability officials responsible for ensuring stadium accessibility is one example of how the inclusion of disabled fans can be improved [4].

Despite these initiatives, fans with disabilities still face many barriers. Stadium closures and restrictions on spectator entry further excluded disabled fans from sporting events, as their specific needs were often overlooked in efforts to ensure the safety and health of all participants [7]. While some innovative solutions have been introduced, such as the webcasting of matches, which have enabled disabled fans to watch matches from home, the issue of physical accessibility to sporting events remains unresolved.

One of the key concepts that must be considered when planning sports venues is the concept of inclusive design (*universal design*). Inclusive design means that sports facilities are designed to be accessible to everyone, regardless of their physical abilities. This approach includes both physical and sensory accessibility. It allows disabled fans access to seats, easier movement around the stadium, access to toilets and sales points, and equal participation in fan life [10,11]. Universal design ensures sporting events are accessible to all fans, regardless of their physical or sensory abilities [8,12,13].

After 2022, several good practices and innovative approaches have emerged that contribute to better inclusion of fans with disabilities. The Center for Access to Football in Europe (CAFE) is one of the organizations that actively cooperates with football clubs and organizations to improve accessibility. In collaboration with UEFA, the CAFE has launched a series of seminars and workshops for football officials to raise awareness of the needs of disabled fans and provide a more inclusive stadium experience [14].

Technological innovations have also contributed to improving the experience of fans with disabilities. Some soccer clubs have begun to deploy smart sensors and applications that enable personalized real-time information, including stadium navigation and access to key accessibility information [8]. These innovations were based on feedback from fans with disabilities, indicating a greater commitment by sports organizations to include all audiences.

Improving communication with disabled fans at sports events requires a comprehensive approach that includes technological solutions, structural changes, and improvement of legislative frameworks. Ensuring equal access to information and sports events for disabled fans is a technical challenge and requires changing the understanding of sports organizations’ social responsibility. Football organizations such as UEFA have made significant strides towards improving accessibility, but there is still much room for improvement, particularly in ensuring effective communication with disabled fans.

Due to the lack of research in this area, it is imperative to continue with studies that will deeply examine the experiences of disabled fans and evaluate the effectiveness of the introduced changes. Only in this way will it be possible to ensure that disabled fans will be equally included in sports life in the future, contributing to a more inclusive and equal society.

To address this gap, this study poses the following research question: “How effectively do European football clubs communicate and implement accessibility features to support disabled fans, and what framework can be developed to evaluate and enhance these practices?”

2. Theoretical Background

2.1. Communication with Disabled Fans at Sports Events

Communication is key to including disabled people in social activities such as sporting events. In football and other sports events, communication between organizers and disabled fans must allow access to all necessary information so that disabled people can participate equally with others [15]. Traditionally, disability has been seen primarily as a health problem, which has led to the marginalization of disabled people, as their needs have often been overlooked [16].

Football organizations such as UEFA have recently introduced several initiatives to improve accessibility for fans with disabilities. Among them is the Handbook for Disability Officials, which includes specific guidelines on stadium accessibility and adapted services for disabled people [4]. Despite these efforts, research shows that fans with disabilities still often encounter many barriers that reduce their experience and prevent them from fully participating in events [5]. The main obstacles include poor access to information, physical barriers in stadiums, poor communication by organizers, and social exclusion of disabled fans.

Communication with disabled fans must cover all stages of the organization of a sports event, from promotion and ticket sales to the event itself and the provision of services at the venue. Organizers must ensure that all information is accessible in ways disabled people can use. For example, websites through which ticket sales take place must be designed to allow the use of screen readers by the blind and partially sighted [7]. There should also be marked and accessible complaint channels that enable people with disabilities to contact the organizers if they face challenges accessing the event.

2.2. A Social and Medical Model of Disability

The understanding of disability has undergone a significant change in recent decades. Traditionally, the medical model of disability has been dominant, treating disability as a medical problem of the individual that requires treatment or correction. According to this model, disabled people were often perceived as a problem to be solved by medical intervention or rehabilitation [16]. However, this model limited the understanding of disability as it did not take into account the wider social context that often causes the exclusion of disabled people.

In contrast to the medical model, the social model of disability, which emerged in the 1970s, recognized that disability is not simply the result of an individual’s physical or sensory limitations but rather the result of social barriers that prevent disabled people from participating equally in society [15]. According to the social model of disability, society’s task is to remove these barriers and ensure that disabled people have equal access to all areas of social life.

In the context of sporting events, society must ensure that stadiums are accessible to all fans, regardless of their physical or sensory abilities. Inclusive design, based on the principles of the social model of disability, emphasizes the need for sports venues to be designed to allow people with disabilities to have equal access to seats, toilets, and other services [10,11].

2.3. Legislation and Policy

Legislation and policy are key to ensuring equal opportunities for people with disabilities at sporting events. In recent years, the European Union has adopted several important legislative measures regulating accessibility for the disabled. Among them is the European Disability Strategy 2021–2030, which emphasizes the need to include disabled people in all aspects of social life, including sports [6]. This strategy is based on the principles of the UN International Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, which considers disability as a human rights issue [17].

Under this legislation, sports organizations must ensure their events are accessible to all fans, including those with disabilities. In accordance with this policy, UEFA has developed guidelines that state football stadiums must provide appropriate accommodations for disabled fans, including access to information, seat reservations, and restrooms [4]. Despite these guidelines, research shows that there is still a lot of ambiguity and inconsistency in implementing these policies, meaning that disabled fans are still not fully included in sporting life [7].

In addition to European legislation, laws and regulations governing accessibility are also adopted at the national level. For example, in the United Kingdom, the Equality Act 2010 is an important legal framework that guarantees the rights of disabled people regarding accessibility to services and public spaces, including sporting events. This law states that organizers of sporting events must make reasonable adjustments to ensure the equal treatment of persons with disabilities [18].

2.4. Technological Innovation to Improve Accessibility

Technological progress in the last decade has enabled many innovations that have improved the accessibility of sports events for fans with disabilities. One of the key technological solutions is the development of smartphone applications that allow disabled people to access personalized information in real time. These apps offer information about stadium accessibility, reservation of accessible parking spaces, access to special entrances, and the ability to communicate with event organizers quickly. In addition, some apps provide audio descriptions for the blind and partially sighted, giving them a better experience watching live events [4].

Significant progress has also been made in visual communication solutions for the deaf and hard of hearing. Technologies like live captions and induction loops allow deaf fans to watch sporting events equally [10,11,19]. It is also important that these technologies are included in all phases of a sporting event, from accessing information about the event to watching the match itself in the stadium.

In addition to mobile applications and audio-visual solutions, other technological innovations have also been introduced to provide a better experience for fans with disabilities. For example, some stadiums use smart sensors that enable personalized navigation around the stadium, making it easier for people with disabilities to move around [20]. These solutions are based on feedback from disabled fans and show a greater commitment by sports organizations to include people with disabilities.

Despite these technological improvements, it is important to emphasize that technology alone cannot solve all accessibility problems. Technological solutions must be supported by structural changes and legislative measures to ensure that stadiums are accessible to all fans [9].

2.5. Inclusive Design of Sports Venues

The concept of inclusive design (English: universal design) is a key approach to planning sports venues. It ensures that these facilities are accessible to everyone, regardless of their physical abilities. Inclusive design is based on the principle that public spaces must be designed to enable disabled people to participate equally in social activities [10,11,19].

In sports events, universal accommodation design includes wheelchair ramps, wider doors, accessible restrooms, and elevators that allow disabled fans unhindered access to seats and other stadium services [8]. In addition to physical adaptations, universal design includes sensory adaptations, such as audio descriptions for the blind and visually impaired and visual cues for the deaf and hard of hearing.

Universal design is not just a technical adaptation but a comprehensive design approach that includes physical and social adaptations that enable people with disabilities to participate equally in all aspects of social life, including sports. Sports stadiums based on the principles of universal design not only provide access for fans with disabilities but also contribute to greater social inclusion and a stronger sense of belonging to the community [2].

2.6. Challenges of Disabled Fans at Sports Events

Despite many initiatives and technological innovations, fans with disabilities still encounter many obstacles that prevent them from participating equally in sporting events. The main barriers include the poor accessibility of physical infrastructure, poor communication, social exclusion, and a lack of adaptations for different types of disabilities [7].

To address these challenges, further research is needed to understand the experiences of fans with disabilities better and contribute to improving the practices of sports organizations. It is also crucial that sports organizations commit to the inclusion of fans with disabilities at all levels of the organization of sporting events, from infrastructure planning to the provision of effective communication and service at venues [18]. The purpose of this study is to evaluate how effectively European football clubs communicate and implement accessibility features for disabled fans and to develop a comprehensive framework for enhancing these practices.

3. Methods

3.1. LLM-Integration into Qualitative Content Analysis

The approach of qualitative content analysis often necessitates the involvement of experts, resulting in a time-consuming process. Conversely, LLMs have achieved remarkable success in various language processing applications [21,22]. Integrating these models into qualitative content analysis could be a worthwhile strategy to enhance both the effectiveness and scope of analysis.

Chew et al. [23] introduced LLM-assisted content analysis (LACA), demonstrating that GPT-3.5 can achieve comparable performance to human coders while significantly reducing coding time across four datasets. While this and later GPT-4 studies [24] show strong potential for automating annotation, the key risks, like reduced researcher engagement and potential hallucinations, can be managed through a hybrid approach that combines human-developed thematic frameworks with LLM assistance for mechanical coding aspects [25]. Our study addresses these risks through multiple randomized sampling validation checks and by maintaining human oversight in concept development and interpretation stages. This hybrid approach could be particularly valuable for thematic analysis of interview transcripts, where researchers establish core concepts through initial analysis. At the same time, LLMs assist in recognizing patterns and generalizing themes across the dataset through iterative prompting techniques, where the same prompt is refined and reapplied multiple times to ensure consistency and depth of analysis [22].

3.2. Research Design

The research methodology followed a four-phase sequential approach (see Figure 1) to develop a communication model for disability accommodations in football organizations.

Phase 1: Data Collection

Primary data were gathered through semi-structured interviews with club officials, including members of communications teams, Disability Access Officers (DAOs), and other relevant personnel responsible for accessibility and fan engagement, from 11 European football clubs. Sixteen clubs were initially invited to participate, ensuring a wide data pool. Eleven clubs responded positively, agreeing to participate in the study. The criteria for selecting clubs were deliberate, intending to acquire various disability accommodation practices from different settings. The clubs were selected based on league standing, geographical location, the resources available, and their connection with disabled fan history. Such variety enabled us to examine the interplay between adopting accessibility measures and various factors, including club size, wealth, and regional policies. This selection was intended to reflect different organizational sizes, cultural approaches, and environmental challenges, ensuring that the findings apply to top-tier clubs and smaller organizations striving to enhance their accessibility practices. The interviews with club officials lasted between 30 and 60 min. The line of questioning was structured around an interview guide that included open-ended and specific questions to understand the clubs’ approaches to disability support. Sample questions included the following: “How do you assess your organization’s approach to fans with disabilities?”, “What are the obstacles you see to the participation of fans with disabilities at sports events?”, and “What adaptations do you offer to fans with disabilities to promote their attendance at the matches?” These questions were designed to elicit detailed responses about the policies, challenges, and strategies related to accessibility. The full interview guide covered key areas such as ticketing challenges, venue accessibility, the specific needs of disabled fans, and the clubs’ communication efforts to encourage attendance by fans with disabilities. Secondary data were collected through web research of club documentation and policies. The sample consisted of interview transcripts from diverse clubs. The research examined the following 11 European football clubs, representing diverse leagues and regions:

1. 

Juventus (Italy—Serie A)

2. 

Leicester City (England—Championship)

3. 

Red Bull Leipzig (Germany—Bundesliga)

4. 

Atletico Madrid (Spain—La Liga)

5. 

Sturm Graz (Austria—Bundesliga)

6. 

Fenerbahçe SK (Turkey—Süper Lig)

7. 

Crvena Zvezda (Serbia—Serbian SuperLiga)

8. 

Lech Poznan (Poland—Ekstraklasa)

9. 

FC Lugano (Switzerland—Super League)

10.

NK Olimpija (Slovenia—Prva Liga)

11.

NK Istra 1961 (Croatia—HNL)

This diverse sample provided a comprehensive view of disability accommodation practices across different football cultures, organizational sizes, and regulatory environments. The variety in the sample strengthened the study’s ability to develop widely applicable communication models while accounting for regional variations in approach and implementation.

Phase 2: Qualitative Analysis

Qualitative analysis began with the transcription of all interview recordings into text format. These transcripts were then analyzed using Taguette 1.1.1 (www.taguette.org accessed on 10 November 2024), an open-source qualitative data analysis web application that enabled systematic interview content coding [26]. Using this software, we manually identified and tagged key themes, patterns, and concepts emerging from the data. In cases of disagreements on the themes or patterns identified, the team conducted consensus meetings to discuss the divergent codes and interpretations. These meetings facilitated the deliberation and justification of coding decisions, ensuring that final themes were agreed upon through consensus or, when necessary, by majority decision. This process helped to reduce individual bias and enhanced the validity of the thematic framework developed from the data. The coded segments were subsequently organized into conceptual groupings to reveal common approaches and divergences in how different clubs handle disability accommodation practices. The coding process resulted in 463 individual tags consolidated into 7 main categories (see Figure 2).

Phase 3: Model Development

In Phase 3, the categories underwent a comprehensive evaluation to determine their significance and interrelationships. This process involved the following three key steps:

1. Systematic analysis of club responses: each response was methodically examined to extract specific details about the clubs’ accessibility and inclusion initiatives, ensuring a comprehensive qualitative data analysis.

2. Quantitative scoring on a 1–5 scale: clubs were scored across seven predefined criteria, as follows:

• Dedicated personnel: availability and specialization of staff focused on accessibility.
• Infrastructure: accessibility of both physical and digital facilities.
• Ticketing: systems that facilitate accessible ticket purchases.
• Specific adaptations: tailored adjustments for individuals with disabilities.
• Engagement: efforts to promote the active participation and representation of disabled fans.
• Feedback: mechanisms for gathering and responding to feedback from fans with special needs.
• Challenge management: proficiency in identifying and addressing accessibility challenges.

Scores ranged from 1 (lowest development) to 5 (highest development), assigned based on the explicit descriptions in the responses.

3. The categorization of clubs into development tiers based on the average scores across all criteria. Clubs were grouped into the following three distinct categories:

• Tier 1 (Elite Performers).
• Tier 2 (Solid Performers).
• Tier 3 (Developing Systems).

Based on this analysis, we developed a communication structure framework that captured the key elements of disability support systems in football clubs (see Figure 3). The framework illustrates the interconnected components of match day support, pre-match preparation, core organizational functions, and feedback mechanisms, all centered around disabled fans’ needs. In the next phase, using this model as a benchmark, we evaluated each club’s communication approach against expected criteria and communication structure. To ensure validity, we employed triangulation methods, comparing our findings across multiple data sources. To minimize potential bias and enhance the robustness of our analysis, we conducted ten iterations of model refinement using large language models (LLMs), alternating between Claude 3.5 Sonnet [27] and GPT-4 [28]. Each iteration involved reanalyzing the data and refining the model structure, helping to identify consistent patterns while reducing potential algorithmic biases that might emerge from using a single model or iteration [21]. We used specific prompts to guide the LLMs in analyzing and evaluating the data. An example of the prompt was the following: “The file contains questions and responses from various football clubs. We aim to investigate how well the communication model for disability accommodations aligns with disabled fans’ needs, and how these accommodations are communicated during individual football events across selected football organizations. Based on the examples provided in the file, develop a communication model that reflects the varying levels of adaptation for disabled fans”. The iterative prompting approach addresses one of the key challenges identified by [4,21] regarding LLM’s stochastic nature and potential for hallucinations in qualitative analysis. We maintained human oversight throughout the process and used human-generated codes as the foundation to ensure methodological rigor.

The developed model was validated against UEFA’s accessibility guidelines [4], some national accessibility regulations for sports venues, and established best practices from the Centre for Access to Football in Europe [14], ensuring its practical applicability and compliance with current European football accessibility standards.

Phase 4: Output Generation.

In Phase 4, we developed two complementary outputs from our analysis. To systematically evaluate football clubs’ disability support systems, we first developed a detailed scoring matrix (see

Table 1. Detailed criteria evaluation matrix.

Criterion (Score Range)	Excellent (4.5–5.0)	Strong (4.0–4.4)	Good (3.5–3.9)	Basic (3.0–3.4)	Limited (<3.0)
Dedicated Personnel	Full staffing with DAO 1, ESG 2 committee, comprehensive training	Dedicated inclusion ambassadors, disability liaison officers	Regular staff training and established support procedures	Basic staff training with some designated responsibilities	Minimal dedicated personnel with limited training
Infrastructure	Fully accessible stadium with multiple adaptations across all areas	Well-equipped facilities with good accessibility and only minor limitations	Standard accessibility features implemented consistently	Basic accessibility features meeting minimum requirements	Limited accessibility features with significant gaps
Ticketing	Comprehensive digital system with specialized provisions for disabled fans. Multiple booking channels and support options	Good digital access with clear pricing policy and accessibility options	Functional ticketing system with basic accessibility features	Basic ticketing system with minimal accessibility options	Limited accessibility in ticketing process
Specific Adaptations	Comprehensive range of adaptations covering all types of disabilities. Innovative solutions implemented	Good variety of adaptations addressing most disability types	Standard adaptations covering common needs	Basic adaptations meeting minimum requirements	Limited adaptations with significant gaps
Engagement	Proactive, with multiple initiatives and regular community involvement	Strong, programs with regular activities	Regular, efforts with some structured activities	Basic, efforts with occasional activities	Limited, with minimal activities
Feedback	Comprehensive feedback systems with regular analysis and implementation of improvements	Regular feedback collection with structured follow-up processes	Basic feedback mechanisms with some follow-up	Simple feedback collection with limited follow-up	Limited feedback collection with minimal follow-up
Challenge Management	Responsive integrated system connected to all other parts. Proactive problem-solving approach	Strong systems for handling challenges with regular monitoring	Adequate management with established procedures	Basic management of common issues	Basic management with reactive approach

¹ A DAO (Disability Access Officer) is a designated staff member responsible for managing and coordinating all aspects of accessibility and support services for disabled supporters at a football club. ² ESG (Environmental, Social, and Governance) is a framework for evaluating organizations’ performance in environmental sustainability, social responsibility (including disability access), and corporate governance practices.

) that defines performance levels ranging from Limited (<3.0) to Excellent (4.5–5.0) across seven key criteria. The heatmap scores were derived through ten iterations of analysis using large language models (LLMs) (see Figure 4). The heatmap in Figure 4 presented scoring, providing a baseline comparison of disability support practices.

The model’s structure enables the assessment of any football club’s communication strategies and processes, regardless of their current disability support maturity level. During our validation process, we evaluated the model’s effectiveness by evaluating the participating clubs, revealing distinct performance tiers. Elite performers like Juventus and Leicester City demonstrated strong integration across all framework components, particularly in core organizational functions and match day support systems. A key finding was the correlation between structured communication pathways and the presence of Disability Access Officers (DAOs), especially in pre-match preparation and feedback mechanisms (see the structure in Figure 3). The model’s systematic evaluation approach provides both a diagnostic tool for assessing current practices and a roadmap for improvement, making it valuable for any football organization seeking to enhance its disability support systems, regardless of their starting point.

Based on semi-structured interviews with club officials, we developed a weighted formula (1) reflecting the relative importance of disability support components. The formula particularly emphasizes infrastructure (0.29) and dedicated personnel (0.22), aligning with insights from club officials.

Applying this weighted calculation revealed the following:

• All clubs maintained their original performance groupings.
• Relative positions remained stable.
• High correlation between weighted and unweighted scores.

• Infrastructure: 135/463 = 0.29 (29%)
• Dedicated personnel: 102/463 = 0.22 (22%)
• Engagement: 64/463 = 0.14 (14%)
• Challenge management: 39/463 = 0.08 (8%)
• Ticketing: 45/463 = 0.10 (10%)
• Specific adaptation: 56/463 = 0.12 (12%)
• Feedback: 22/463 = 0.05 (5%)

Club performance = 0.29 × Infrastructure + 0.22 × Dedicated personnel + 0.14 × Engagement +
0.08 × Challenge management + 0.10 × Ticketing + 0.12 × Specific adaptation + 0.05 × Feedback

(1)

This methodological approach allowed for a systematic analysis of how football clubs communicate and implement disability accommodations, leading to evidence-based models for improving accessibility in football organizations. The sample of 11 diverse European clubs provided rich qualitative data representing different cultural contexts and organizational approaches to disability accommodation.

The methodology specifically addressed the research problem by analyzing real-world communication practices and accommodation systems, enabling the development of practical models that can help align club communication strategies with the needs of disabled fans.

We applied our proposed model to evaluate a club that was not included in our initial analysis. We evaluated AC Milan, one of the most historically prestigious clubs in world football. For details of the assessment, refer to Appendix A.

The following refers to an assessment conducted based on the weighted formula (1): dedicated personnel: 4.7 (excellent), infrastructure: 4.6 (excellent), ticketing: 4.4 (strong), specific adaptations: 4.5 (excellent), engagement: 4.8 (excellent), feedback: 4.3 (strong), and challenge management: 4.6 (excellent).

(0.29 × 4.6) + (0.22 × 4.7) + (0.14 × 4.8) + (0.08 × 4.6) + (0.10 × 4.4) + (0.12 × 4.5) + (0.05 × 4.3) = 4.5

Simple average:

(4.7 + 4.6 + 4.4 + 4.5 + 4.8 + 4.3 + 4.6)/7 = 4.56

Both scores place AC Milan in the “Elite Performers” category (>4.5), at a level like Juventus and RB Leipzig. The weighted and unweighted scores are quite close (4.59 vs. 4.56), indicating consistently high performance across all categories. This aligns with what we might expect from a club of AC Milan’s stature and resources, placing them among the top performers in disability support services.

This methodological approach enabled systematic analysis of football clubs’ disability accommodations, leading to evidence-based models for improving accessibility. The sample of 11 European clubs provided data on different cultural and organizational approaches to disability support. Through weighted evaluation criteria, we identified key success factors and categorized clubs into performance groups, providing clear benchmarks for improvement.

4. Discussion

Based on this research and recent studies, ref. [25] recommends the integration of large language models (LLMs) into qualitative research, emphasizing the importance of maintaining human oversight. They highlight the potential benefits of LLMs in enhancing the development of interview protocols. However, Paulus et al. [21] caution that marketing AI tools as fully automated solutions may lead researchers to form unrealistic expectations about the capabilities of AI technology, potentially undermining essential principles of qualitative research. The recommended approach is not merely to include a statement on cultural sensitivities in the background section but for researchers to shift from a passive sensitivity to a proactive engagement with these considerations, prioritizing ethical deliberation alongside output quality, with the human element of interpretation and systematic analysis as central to the research process. Due to the inherent stochastic nature of LLMs [21], we manually developed our codebook through multiple rounds of prompt iterations. This approach aimed to reduce both model-specific bias and randomness in the generated outputs by cycling between two different LLMs. Our research findings align with the existing scientific literature regarding policy acceptance and implementation disparities. While UEFA’s member associations and the European Disability Strategy 2021–2030 advocate for inclusion as a guiding principle, football clubs exhibit inconsistent compliance with these guidelines.

García et al. [2] highlight that compliance with accessibility standards is notably strong among larger clubs that employ Disability Access Officers (DAOs), such as Juventus and Leicester City. Conversely, smaller clubs often lack the necessary resources or systematic processes, reflecting findings from the literature indicating that resource allocation is a key factor in achieving accessibility [18]. This observation in underfunded or less-professionalized clubs underscores the disconnect between policy formulation and its practical implementation.

Regarding technology integration, research findings suggest that organizations that utilize technology—such as real-time navigation applications or customized accessibility apps—tend to receive higher satisfaction ratings from fan groups identifying as disabled. This aligns with the study by [20], emphasizing how technology can bridge accessibility gaps. However, as noted by Walker and Kent [9], there is no inherent magic in technology itself. Juventus has taken significant strides by incorporating apps and live updates specifically designed for disabled fans, while clubs like NK Istra 1961 have demonstrated a lack of effective technology adoption. The findings indicate a consensus in the literature around the necessity for a hybrid approach that embraces technological innovation. However, we recommend that it be supported by robust infrastructure and well-trained human resources. The principles of universal design have emerged as crucial factors influencing accessibility in both the literature and research outcomes. Two clubs that exemplify best practices are Leicester City and Atletico Madrid, offering easily accessible seating, ramps, and sensory spaces. This aligns with the assertions made by Sholanke and Eleagu [12,13] that the universal design of sports venues represents a vital sustainable solution that enhances social inclusion. Their research emphasizes that inclusive design must consider accessibility features for all users across various abilities. However, a case study involving NK Olimpija highlights common barriers such as cost and lack of awareness in implementing universal design principles, reflecting the challenges discussed by [29] regarding the practical constraints faced when adapting existing sports facilities to be more inclusive, showing the limited implementation of these principles.

Communication strategies are crucial, as evidenced by research projects and the academic literature. Effective communication is widely recognized as a vital element of inclusion [7]. Consequently, it is unsurprising that clubs like Leicester City, which employ multi-channel communication, report higher satisfaction among their fans. In contrast, NK Istra 1961 has received criticism for its fragmented and largely inaccessible communication strategy, indicating a failure to adequately consider the needs of disabled fans, as highlighted in research [5].

The findings and existing literature also underscore the importance of low-barrier websites, accessible ticket purchase platforms, and responsive feedback tools to enhance engagement [30]. Not all clubs took the initiative to offer online engagement opportunities for their global supporters, as seen with Atletico Madrid. Some clubs appear to have underestimated the needs of disabled fans during the reopening phases. This aligns with the research [7] assertion that the pandemic disproportionately affects those living on the margins, including fans of disability sports. These vulnerabilities highlight the necessity for inclusive emergency planning to be integrated into routine operational practices, a concept emphasized in both the study findings and the relevant literature.

Cultural inclusion and training are vital components for success. The findings underscore the importance of cultivating an inclusive organizational culture. As highlighted in the literature on cultural sensitivity and awareness [18], clubs that prioritize regular staff training and invest in community engagement—such as Leicester City—tend to achieve more favorable outcomes.

Furthermore, the results illustrate a connection between fan experiences and dedicated DAOs, aligning with the assertions of [2]. They emphasize that structural inclusion mechanisms are essential to creating anything truly meaningful. A comparative analysis of the research findings, alongside insights from the existing scientific literature, is summarized in the table below. It identifies critical aspects such as policy implementation, technology utilization, universal design, communication strategies, the impact of COVID-19, and cultural diversity.

Larger clubs adhere to the standards established by UEFA, while smaller clubs often lack the necessary tools and training to implement these inclusivity mandates fully. Time constraints and resource limitations are frequently cited as reasons why smaller organizations struggle with achieving full compliance [18]. Tech-advanced clubs utilize apps and real-time tools, but integrating these with physical infrastructure is essential to ensure comprehensive accessibility [11]. While universal design principles offer a sustainable and long-term solution, the cost of implementation remains a significant barrier for many clubs [11,19].

Poor communication often leads to exclusion, as multi-channel strategies are necessary to boost satisfaction and enable meaningful participation and engagement [5,7]. During the COVID-19 pandemic, disabled fans often felt isolated and neglected due to inadequate communication from clubs, especially smaller ones that lacked robust strategies for inclusive engagement [7]. Clubs that invested in Cultural Inclusion Training and the appointment of Disability Access Officers (DAOs) demonstrated better outcomes in maintaining inclusivity, highlighting the significant influence of organizational culture on these efforts [2].

Table 2. The key comparisons between the research findings and the scientific literature.

Theme	Research Findings	Scientific Literature
Policy implementation	Larger clubs align with UEFA standards; smaller clubs face resource and training gaps.	Resource constraints hinder smaller organizations from fully adhering to inclusivity mandates [18].
Technology	Advanced clubs use apps and real-time tools, but integration with infrastructure is key.	Technology must complement physical adaptations to ensure accessibility [11,19].
Universal design	Successful clubs adopt universal principles; others lag behind due to cost barriers.	Universal design is a sustainable, long-term solution for accessibility [11].
Communication	Multi-channel strategies improve satisfaction; poor communication leads to exclusion.	Inclusive communication is essential for participation and engagement [5,7,8,12,13].
COVID-19	Clubs varied in responses, with smaller ones neglecting disabled fans’ needs.	Marginalized groups, including disabled fans, were disproportionately affected during the pandemic [7].
Cultural Inclusion	Training and DAOs correlate with better outcomes.	Organizational culture significantly impacts inclusion efforts [7].

synthesizes research findings and theoretical insights, presenting actionable perspectives for enhancing accessibility within sports organizations. Regarding policy implementation, larger clubs like Juventus and Leicester City comply with UEFA standards largely due to their appointment of DAOs and better resource allocation. In contrast, smaller clubs face challenges due to limited resources and exposure, which aligns with the argument that resource allocation is critical in determining inclusion success [11,19].

Technological Integration: Large clubs benefit from well-managed advanced technological tools, such as navigation apps and real-time access, to enhance the overall experience for fans. However, according to [11,19], these tools require adequate infrastructure and human support to be effective.

Universal Design: Leicester City has implemented universal design principles, making their club a model for accessibility. However, these practices are often not replicable for smaller organizations due to financial constraints. Paramio et al. remind us that permanent solutions for accessibility must be grounded in universal design [11].

Communication Techniques: Teams that utilize multiple communication platforms provide higher-quality experiences for their followers, as indicated by the analysis. Penfold et al. find that healthy food promotions often highlight junk food, aligning with this finding [7]. Furthermore, this concept supports the argument that inclusive communication is essential for the participation of disabled fans.

COVID Response: Many clubs shifted to virtual engagement during the pandemic; however, the specific needs of disabled fans were frequently overlooked [30]. The pandemic has disproportionate effects on different groups.

Cultural Inclusion: Research highlights the importance of training and community connections in fostering inclusion. The literature by García et al. [2] confirms that inclusive corporate cultures are positively correlated with fans feeling integrated within a community.

5. Conclusions

Communication with disabled fans at sporting events is crucial for their equal inclusion in social life. Despite legislative frameworks and technological innovations aimed at enhancing accessibility, significant barriers remain that prevent the full participation of disabled fans. These barriers include limited accessibility infrastructure, inconsistent communication practices, and insufficient implementation of inclusive policies. Addressing these challenges requires further research and dedicated efforts from sports organizations.

The study identifies several key success factors critical for enhancing accessibility: the employment of Disability Access Officers (DAOs), the implementation of dedicated communication strategies, the use of adaptive technologies, and the adoption of universal design principles. Clubs that excel in these areas, such as Juventus and Leicester City, are benchmarks for best practices. In contrast, smaller clubs often struggle due to resource constraints and policy compliance issues.

The research categorizes clubs into the following three performance tiers:

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Elite Performers who consistently integrate comprehensive systems and dedicated personnel (e.g., DAOs) to support disabled fans.

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Solid Performers who have established frameworks but face occasional gaps in their services.

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Developing Systems representing clubs with emerging structures that need further development to fully support accessibility.

By explicitly grouping clubs based on these benchmarks, the study provides a structured framework that clubs can use to assess and improve their disability support systems. This grouping underscores the varying levels of accessibility and highlights areas for improvement across the industry.

The study’s focus on European football clubs limits the generalizability of its findings to other regions or sports organizations. Additionally, the reliance on qualitative methods, such as interviews, introduces the potential for subjective biases. However, these methods also provide rich, contextual insights into different clubs’ specific challenges and successes.

Future research should aim to compare access issues across diverse regions and sports to identify both universal and context-specific challenges. Investigating emerging technologies like IoT and AI could offer real-time solutions to enhance accessibility. Longitudinal studies could assess the long-term impacts of policy changes and infrastructure investments on the experiences of disabled fans. Moreover, exploring the influence of inclusive organizational cultures on fan satisfaction and community engagement will be vital in creating a more accessible sports environment.

The accessibility of sporting events is not merely a technical or logistical challenge but a moral and human rights issue. By addressing communication gaps, adopting universal design principles, and utilizing technology, sports organizations can ensure inclusive experiences for disabled fans. Closing implementation gaps, scaling innovative practices, and fostering inclusive cultures will be crucial for advancing accessibility and equality in sports.