Gender Differences in Longitudinal Links between Neighborhood Fear, Parental Support, and Depression among African American Emerging Adults
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Depression and African Americans
1.2. Developmental Risks for Depressive Symptoms among African Americans
1.3. Fear of Neighborhood Violence
1.4. Parental Support and Depression
2. Methods
2.1. Procedure
2.2. Measures
2.2.1. Covariates
2.2.2. Symptoms of Depression
2.2.3. Parental Support
2.2.4. Fear of Neighborhood Violence
2.3. Data Analysis Strategy
3. Results
3.1. Univariate Analysis
Men | Women | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | Min | Max | Mean | SD | n | Min | Max | Mean | SD | |
Fear of violence in neighborhood at age 21 | 205 | 1.0 | 4.0 | 1.39 | 0.64 | 265 | 1.0 | 4.0 | 1.50 | 0.67 |
Fear of violence in neighborhood at age 22 | 235 | 1.0 | 4.0 | 1.43 | 0.66 | 278 | 1.0 | 4.0 | 1.47 | 0.69 |
Maternal Support at age 21 | 200 | 1.0 | 5.0 | 4.11 | 0.94 | 247 | 1.0 | 5.0 | 3.96 | 1.07 |
Maternal Support at age 24 | 201 | 1.0 | 5.0 | 4.01 | 0.99 | 235 | 1.0 | 5.0 | 3.97 | 1.09 |
Paternal Support at age 21 | 142 | 1.0 | 5.0 | 3.36 | 1.15 | 210 | 1.0 | 5.0 | 2.98 | 1.24 |
Paternal Support at age 24 | 149 | 1.0 | 5.0 | 3.42 | 1.16 | 202 | 1.0 | 5.0 | 3.22 | 1.27 |
Depressive Symptoms at age 23 | 197 | 1.0 | 5.0 | 1.59 | 0.61 | 262 | 1.0 | 4.3 | 1.84 | 0.75 |
Depressive Symptoms at age 24 | 209 | 1.0 | 4.8 | 1.65 | 0.70 | 262 | 1.0 | 4.7 | 1.78 | 0.73 |
3.2. Bivariate Analysis
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
age | 1 | −0.1 | −0.099 | 0.022 | 0.062 | −0.123 | −0.152 * | −0.055 | −0.136 | 0.054 | −0.08 |
Parent employment | −0.098 | 1 | 0.146 ** | 0.04 | 0.071 | 0.045 | 0.145 * | −0.004 | 0.07 | −0.233 ** | −0.124 |
Intact family | −0.123 * | 0.128* | 1 | −0.012 | −0.03 | 0.192 ** | 0.181 * | 0.169 * | 0.273 ** | −0.146 * | −0.121 |
Fear of violence in neighborhood | 0.055 | −0.105 | −0.003 | 1 | 0.384 ** | −0.128 | −0.054 | −0.155 | 0.129 | 0.006 | 0.196 * |
Fear of violence in neighborhood | 0.04 | −0.05 | −0.092 | 0.369 ** | 1 | 0.035 | −0.005 | 0.011 | 0.043 | 0.019 | 0.221 ** |
Support of mother in daily life | 0.015 | 0.016 | 0.044 | −0.111 | −0.015 | 1 | 0.657 ** | 0.361 ** | 0.298 ** | −0.056 | −0.116 |
Support of mother in daily life | −0.014 | 0.077 | 0.11 | −0.083 | 0.006 | 0.660 ** | 1 | 0.217* | 0.329 ** | −0.195* | −0.290 ** |
Support of father in daily life | −0.038 | 0.091 | 0.163* | −0.103 | −0.136 | 0.265 ** | 0.255 ** | 1 | 0.697 ** | −0.132 | −0.078 |
Support of father in daily life | −0.027 | 0.036 | 0.147* | 0.032 | 0.051 | 0.04 | 0.221 ** | 0.452** | 1 | −0.199* | −0.13 |
Depressive Symptoms | 0.089 | −0.086 | −0.104 | 0.126 | 0.078 | −0.302 ** | −0.343 ** | −0.204** | −0.153 * | 1 | 0.575 ** |
Depressive Symptoms | −0.053 | −0.005 | 0.003 | 0.146* | 0.111 | −0.243 ** | −0.157 * | −0.069 | −0.042 | 0.539** | 1 |
3.3. Multivariable Model
Men | Women | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Standardized B | SE | P | Standardized B | SE | P | |||
Fear of violence in neighborhood at age 21 | → | Fear of violence in neighborhood at age 22 | 0.386 | 0.068 | <0.001 | 0.361 | 0.062 | <0.001 |
Fear of violence in neighborhood at age 21 | → | Depressive Symptoms at age 23 | 0.016 | 0.072 | 0.836 | 0.062 | 0.07 | 0.321 |
Maternal Support at age 21 | → | Maternal Support at age 24 | 0.701 | 0.052 | <0.001 | 0.672 | 0.05 | <0.001 |
Maternal Support at age 21 | → | Depressive Symptoms at age 23 | −0.09 | 0.051 | 0.286 | −0.28 | 0.044 | <0.001 |
Paternal Support at age 21 | → | Paternal Support at age 24 | 0.744 | 0.061 | <0.001 | 0.472 | 0.069 | <0.001 |
Paternal Support at age 21 | → | Depressive Symptoms at age 23 | −0.036 | 0.048 | 0.699 | −0.098 | 0.043 | 0.167 |
Age | → | Depressive Symptoms at age 23 | 0.007 | 0.062 | 0.921 | 0.044 | 0.07 | 0.447 |
Parent employment | → | Depressive Symptoms at age 23 | −0.184 | 0.083 | 0.008 | −0.048 | 0.09 | 0.424 |
Intact family | → | Depressive Symptoms at age 23 | −0.06 | 0.093 | 0.393 | −0.057 | 0.109 | 0.337 |
Depressive Symptoms at age 23 | → | Depressive Symptoms at age 24 | 0.507 | 0.068 | <0.001 | 0.528 | 0.055 | <0.001 |
Fear of violence in neighborhood at age 21 | → | Depressive Symptoms at age 22 | 0.166 | 0.069 | 0.013 | 0.054 | 0.063 | 0.365 |
Fear of violence in neighborhood at age 22 | → | Depressive Symptoms at age 23 | 0.098 | 0.075 | 0.163 | 0.067 | 0.068 | 0.281 |
Maternal Support at age 24 | → | Depressive Symptoms at age 24 | −0.176 | 0.042 | 0.003 | 0.018 | 0.038 | 0.758 |
Paternal Support at age 24 | → | Depressive Symptoms at age 24 | −0.007 | 0.039 | 0.918 | 0.038 | 0.034 | 0.523 |
4. Discussion
4.1. Fear of Violence and Depressive Symptoms among African American Males
4.2. Parental Support and Depressive Symptoms during Emerging Adulthood
4.3. Implications, Recommendations, and Future Directions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Appendix 1. Items Used for Measurement of Study Constructs.
Maternal Support | |||||
How often do you speak with or see your Mother? | |||||
1. Daily 2. Every 2–3 days 3. Every 4–6 days 4. Once a week 5. Two times/month | |||||
6. Once a month 7. More than 1 month ago 8. No contact 9 Never met 10. Deceased | |||||
Please answer the following questions. | |||||
Not True | Little True | Somewhat True | Pretty True | Very True | |
My Mother enjoys hearing about what I think. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
I rely on my Mother for emotional support. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
My Mother is good at helping me solve problems. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
I have a deep sharing relationship with my Mother. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
I rely on my Mother for moral support. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
Although I trust my Mother, sometimes I have my doubts. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
My Mother understands me. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
I wish I had a different Mother. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
Paternal Support | |||||
How often do you speak with or see your Father? | |||||
1. Daily 2. Every 2–3 days 3. Every 4–6 days 4. Once a week 5. Two times/month | |||||
6. Once a month 7. More than 1 month ago 8. No contact 9 Never met 10. Deceased | |||||
Please answer the following questions. | |||||
Not True | Little True | Somewhat True | Pretty True | Very True | |
My Father enjoys hearing about what I think. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
I rely on my Father for emotional support. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
My Father is good at helping me solve problems. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
I have a deep sharing relationship with my Father. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
I rely on my Father for moral support. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
Although I trust my Father, sometimes I have my doubts. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
My Father understands me. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
I wish I had a different Father. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
Fear of Violence in the Neighborhood | |||||
Using this 4-point scale, please tell me how much you agree with the following statements. | |||||
Strongly Disagree | Strongly Agree | ||||
I am afraid of the violence in my neighborhood. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | |
I worry that someone in my neighborhood will physically hurt me. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | |
Depressive Symptoms | |||||
I am now going to read a list of problems and complaints that people sometimes have. During the past week, including today, please tell me how often you felt or thought that way. | |||||
Never | Almost Never | Sometimes | Fairly Often | Very Often | |
Thoughts of ending your life | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
Feeling lonely | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
Feeling blue (or sad) | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
Feeling no interest in things | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
Feeling hopeless about the future | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
Feelings of worthlessness | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Assari, S.; Smith, J.R.; Caldwell, C.H.; Zimmerman, M.A. Gender Differences in Longitudinal Links between Neighborhood Fear, Parental Support, and Depression among African American Emerging Adults. Societies 2015, 5, 151-170. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc5010151
Assari S, Smith JR, Caldwell CH, Zimmerman MA. Gender Differences in Longitudinal Links between Neighborhood Fear, Parental Support, and Depression among African American Emerging Adults. Societies. 2015; 5(1):151-170. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc5010151
Chicago/Turabian StyleAssari, Shervin, Jocelyn R. Smith, Cleopatra Howard Caldwell, and Marc A. Zimmerman. 2015. "Gender Differences in Longitudinal Links between Neighborhood Fear, Parental Support, and Depression among African American Emerging Adults" Societies 5, no. 1: 151-170. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc5010151