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Article

Study on the Bronze Weapons Excavated from Xichuan, China

by
Shengwei Zhao
1,
Xin Liu
1,
Zhen Chen
1,
Siyu Zhang
2,
Qing Niu
3 and
Xing Zhao
2,*
1
Henan Provincial Institute of Cultural Heritage and Archaeology, Zhengzhou 450000, China
2
School of Cultural Heritage, Northwest University, Xi’an 710127, China
3
Xi’an Cultural Heritage Promotion Center, Xi’an 710001, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Metals 2024, 14(4), 395; https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040395
Submission received: 28 February 2024 / Revised: 22 March 2024 / Accepted: 25 March 2024 / Published: 28 March 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metals for Art and Cultural Heritage)
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Abstract

:
The collection of twelve bronze artifacts discovered in Xichuan provides invaluable historical insights into the Warring States period (476 BC to 221 BC) of ancient China. To investigate their fabrication techniques and current state of preservation, a comprehensive analysis was conducted using a metallographic microscope, a scanning electron microscope, and an electron spectrometer to examine the microstructure and elemental composition of the artifacts. The findings revealed that the copper content in these bronze artifacts varied between 41.82% and 87.95%, the tin content ranged from 6.79% to 46.88%, and the lead content was less than 28.96%. The microstructure exhibited an α-solid-solution dendritic-crystal-segregation structure, with a substantial amount of (α + δ) eutectic distributed in an island-like pattern. Lead was dispersed unevenly, appearing as small granules and large ellipsoids. The composition of these weapons aligned with their intended use, adhering to the manufacturing standards of traditional Chinese bronzes. However, their state of preservation was suboptimal, necessitating immediate protective measures. This study contributes physical evidence to the research on early Chinese bronze production and offers scientific guidance for the conservation and restoration of these bronze artifacts.

1. Introduction

Xichuan County, a sub-district of Nanyang City in Henan Province, is located on the southwestern border of Henan Province [1]. Located at the crossroads of ancient northern and southern cultures, Xichuan’s terrain is strategically important and has historically been a contested area for military strategists (see Figure 1). Xichuan is considered one of the birthplaces of Chu culture, and may have served as the first capital of the Chu state during the Spring and Autumn period (770 to 476 BC). During the Warring States period (475–221 BC), the northwestern part of Xichuan was part of the Shang and Yu regions of the Qin state, while the rest was part of the Danxi region of the Chu state. Ongoing conflicts between the Qin and Chu dynasties led to the Chu capital being moved south, making Xichuan a border region for the Chu state.
Guozhuang Cemetery (also known as Jiunvzhong Cemetery, named after the nine burial mounds scattered around the area) is located on Laolonggang Hill, southwest of Yanghe Village, Xianghua Town, Xichuan County. Before the reservoir was filled, this area belonged to Guozhuang Village, hence the name Guozhuang Cemetery. The site was submerged on the eastern bank of the Danjiangkou Reservoir after it was dammed [2,3]. In 1977, the archaeological team of the Henan Provincial Cultural Relics Work Team at the Danjiangkou Reservoir excavated the cemetery, but due to the rising water level, the excavation was not completed. In the spring of 1998, as the water level of the Danjiangkou Reservoir dropped, the tombs of the Guozhuang cemetery were exposed above the water surface, and people took the opportunity to illegally steal some of the cultural artefacts.
In order to protect the underground cultural relics, a joint archaeological team from the Henan Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, the Nanyang City Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, and the Xichuan County Museum conducted a rescue excavation of Guozhuang Cemetery with the approval of the higher authorities. A total of 10 tombs were excavated. From the tomb structure, burial objects, and basic characteristics, it was concluded that this is a cemetery of the Chu nobility of the Mid-Warring States period.
The Chu tomb site at Guozhuang in Xichuan, with its abundant unearthed bronze artifacts that include in particular a large quantity and diverse variety of weapons, exhibits distinctive characteristics and serves as a typical representative of Chu culture. The importance of a nation lies in sacrificial rites and military affairs [4]. Weapons are an important manifestation of the level of social productivity of a country. They are crucial material evidence for the study of cultural interactions in the context of warfare, and they provide valuable insights into the history of ancient Chinese weaponry and military. This paper analyzes 12 bronze weapons from four tombs (M3, M4, M5, and M11) at the Chu tomb site in Guozhuang, Xichuan, all belonging to individuals of the middle to lower aristocratic class. The chronological context places these tombs in the middle to late stages of the Warring States period.
Research on the bronze ritual objects unearthed from Chu tombs in the Eastern Zhou period has yielded certain achievements [5,6]. However, there is insufficient research on bronze weapons [7,8]. This paper focuses on the bronze weapons, including dagger-axes, arrows, spears, and swords, excavated from the Guozhuang Chu tombs in Xichuan. In order to further reveal the state of preservation of these metal artifacts, selective sampling was carried out on some bronze weapons, strictly adhering to the principles of the protection and restoration of cultural relics. Through the integration of environmental scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (ESEM-EDS) and metallographic observations, alloy composition and metallographic structural analyses were carried out on selected metal matrices. The aim of this scientific assessment was to provide insight into the archaeological information embedded in these artifacts and to provide scientific guidance for the development and implementation of techniques for the protection and restoration of these artifacts.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials

The 12 bronze weapons analyzed in this study came from four tombs (M3, M4, M5, and M11) at the Chu tomb site in Guozhuang, Xichuan. They included 7 bronze dagger-axes, 2 single or paired bronze arrows, 2 bronze spearheads, and 1 bronze sword.
In order to meet the analytical requirements, a total of 12 bronze fragment matrices were collected by sampling from damaged areas of the artifacts. The matrix samples were labelled XCJX1-XCJX12. Detailed information on the artifacts and sampling is given in Table 1. Photos of the samples are provided in Figure 2. The samples were subjected to alloy composition testing and a metallographic analysis [9,10,11].
Table 1. Basic information of collected samples.
Table 1. Basic information of collected samples.
No.Bronze VesselVessel No.Sample No.Size (cm)Weight (kg)
LengthBreadth
1Dagger-axeM3:7XCJX113.7-0.08
2Dagger-axeM3:30XCJX233.811.80.24
3 1ArrowheadM3:32XCJX36.7-0.16
4Dagger-axeM3:37XCJX421.27.90.20
5SpearheadM3:58XCJX59.9-0.03
6 2ArrowheadM3:59XCJX68.8-0.12
7SwordM4:9XCJX754.3-0.84
8SpearheadM4:19XCJX811.4-0.03
9Dagger-axeM5:31XCJX913.06.70.04
10Dagger-axeM5:32XCJX1022.06.30.06
11Dagger-axeM5:33XCJX1110.611.00.08
12Dagger-axeM11:10XCJX1221.09.00.10
1: The sample is the fourth from the left in the first row of the photo (see Figure 2c). 2: The sample is the second from the left in the photo (see Figure 2f).
Metals 14 00395 g002
Figure 2. Samples photos 3. (a) XCJX1. (b) XCJX2. (c) XCJX3. (d) XCJX4. (e) XCJX5. (f) XCJX6. (g) XCJX7. (h) XCJX8. (i) XCJX9. (j) XCJX10. (k) XCJX11. (l) XCJX12. 3 Photos of the samples can be seen in the attachment.
Figure 2. Samples photos 3. (a) XCJX1. (b) XCJX2. (c) XCJX3. (d) XCJX4. (e) XCJX5. (f) XCJX6. (g) XCJX7. (h) XCJX8. (i) XCJX9. (j) XCJX10. (k) XCJX11. (l) XCJX12. 3 Photos of the samples can be seen in the attachment.
Metals 14 00395 g002

2.2. Experimental Instruments and Testing Methods

2.2.1. Metallographic Analysis

Prior to the metallographic analysis, the specimens were prepared by embedding them in cold mounting resin. The specimens were then ground with 400-, 1000-, 3000-, and 7000-grit sandpaper and polished with a velvet cloth. Prior to etching, observations were made using a metallographic microscope to examine the inclusions, lead morphology, and corroded structures. After secondary polishing, the specimens were etched with a 3% ferric chloride–hydrochloric acid–alcohol solution, fixed on a specimen holder, and subjected to metallographic optical microscopy to analyze the matrix structure [12]. The instrument used was a Leica DM6000 metallographic microscope from Leica, Germany.

2.2.2. Scanning Electron Microscopy and Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) Analysis

After additional polishing and carbon-coating of the metallographic specimens, they were mounted on a specimen holder using a conductive adhesive for analysis. Scanning electron microscopy with backscattered electron imaging was used to observe detailed microstructures, and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) was used for a quantitative analysis of the elemental composition without standard samples. The instruments used were an FEI QUANTA-650 environmental scanning electron microscope (ESEM) from FEI, USA, and an APOLLO-X energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometer from EDAX, under the following conditions: an operating voltage of 25 kV, a working distance of 10 mm, and a scan time of 50 s.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Types and Uses of Bronze Weapons

Bronze weapons are classified according to their functionality, methods of use, and structural forms, and are divided into offensive and defensive categories. Offensive weapons can be further categorized into melee weapons, such as dagger-axes, daggers, axes, knives, swords, and spears, and ranged weapons such as arrowheads and bows. Defensive weapons include armors, helmets, and shields.
During the Warring States period, the technology of making bronze weapons matured due to the demands of warfare and the continuity of bronze-casting techniques [13]. The formidable regional power of various feudal states allowed for their direct control over metal ore resources [14]. As a result, bronze-casting technology matured significantly, leading to the establishment of standardized production processes. This confluence of factors contributed to the zenith of bronze weaponry during this historical period [15].
During the Warring States period, despite the continued prevalence of large-scale chariot warfare, there was a significant increase in the size of the infantry and the introduction and widespread use of cavalry. This change led to a shift in the dynamics of warfare from individual chariot combat to multi-unit operations. Bows, as long-range weapons, became equipped with a significant number of arrowheads. Throughout this period, spears and dagger-axes remained the predominant long weapons used by charioteers in close combat. At the same time, the sword emerged as the primary short weapon for infantry. Bronze-sword-forging techniques reached a level of maturity that led to a standardized form. In particular, to meet the practical requirements of infantry for light and sharp weapons, the sword craftsmanship of states such as Wu, Yue, and Chu far surpassed that of the Central Plains. The cutting and chopping performance of these swords was superior. The sampled bronze daggers, spears, and swords from these tombs were determined to be made in the Mid-Warring States period, slightly earlier than the burial time.

3.2. Matrix Structure Analysis

According to the mechanical performance diagram for cast tin bronze, the optimal hardness and tensile strength are achieved when the tin content is between 10% and 18% by weight [16,17]. The properties of bronze alloys vary according to the copper–tin ratio used in their manufacture. Increasing the tin content of bronze improves its strength, but reduces its plasticity and increases its brittleness.
Lead, found in weapons, plays an important role in the sharpness of the blade. At a low hardness, lead does not form a solid solution or new compounds in copper. Instead, it exists as a separate phase. When uniformly dispersed in fine particles between the dendrites, lead maximizes the melting point reduction, improves the fluidity, and increases the wear resistance while maintaining a high mechanical performance [18]. This allows intricate artifacts to be cast with greater ease.
These considerations regarding the tin and lead content in the bronze matrix contribute to understanding the mechanical and casting properties of the analyzed bronze weapons [19].
The SEM-EDS chemical composition analysis results are shown in Table 2. Ancient tin bronze is divided into two types: high-tin and low-tin. Bronze with a tin content less than 17% is classified as low-tin bronze, while bronze with a tin content greater than 17% is classified as high-tin bronze [20]. The results of the main chemical components indicated that, of the 12 bronze weapon samples tested, half were bronze weapons with a copper–tin binary alloy system. This category included two bronze dagger-axes (M3:30 and M3:37), one bronze arrowhead (M3:32), two bronze spearheads (M3:58 and M4:19), and one bronze sword (M4:9). Two bronze dagger-axes (M3:30 and M3:37), one bronze arrowhead (M3:32), and one bronze spearhead (M4:19) had a tin content of around 13%, which classified them as low-tin bronze. On the other hand, the bronze spearhead (M3:58) and the bronze sword (M4:9) had a tin content of around 26%, placing them in the high-tin bronze category. The remaining half of the bronze artifacts formed a ternary copper–tin–lead alloy system. This category included five bronze dagger-axes (M3:7, M5:31, M5:32, M5:33, and M11:10) and one bronze dagger-axe (M3:59). With the exception of the heavily corroded bronze dagger-axe (M3:7), the tin content of the remaining five artifacts ranged from 6.79% to 14.87%, and the lead content from 6.90% to 28.96%, which classified them as low-tin bronze.
In the Rites of Zhou–Kaogongji, ancient Chinese bronze smelting was categorized into six Cu-Sn recipes called the “Six Ji”. Among them, “four parts copper to one part tin” is called “Ji of Dagger-axes and Spearheads”, “three parts copper to one part tin” is called “Ji of Large Blades”, and “five parts copper to one part tin” is called “Ji of Carving and Killing”. This categorization sheds light on the cultural and technological considerations in ancient Chinese bronze weapon crafting.
“Ji of Dagger-axes and Spearheads”: This category encompasses long weapons such as dagger-axes and spearheads, typically used on chariots. They required materials with a good toughness, hence a lower tin content. “Ji of Large Blades”: Referring to weapons such as knives and swords, this category demands sharpness and a certain level of toughness to prevent easy breakage during combat. The tin content and hardness of the bronze material for casting these weapons were slightly lower than those for arrowheads and short swords, but the material’s toughness was slightly higher. “Ji of Carving and Killing”: This category includes weapons such as arrowheads, emphasizing sharpness and a high hardness. For long-range weapons such as arrowheads, a higher speed, strength, and hardness contributed to easier penetration into the target. Due to their expendable nature, the tin content needed to be kept below 20% to minimize tin consumption while maintaining the mechanical performance.
When applying this categorization to the bronze weapons, the bronze spearhead (M3:58) aligned with the characteristics of the “Ji of Dagger-axes and Spearheads”. The bronze sword (M4:9) aligned with the characteristics of the “Ji of Large Blades”. Considering tin and lead together [21], the bronze dagger-axes (M5:31 and M11:10) roughly aligned with the “Ji of Dagger-axes and Spearheads”. The bronze arrowhead (M3:59) aligned with the characteristics of the “Ji of Carving and Killing”.
The practice of alloying during bronze casting was influenced by various factors, including changes in the metal supply and procurement over time, as well as the state of mineral extraction. Additionally, it reflected the craftsman’s ability to control metallurgical properties based on the limitations of the metal supply and the requirements of the final product. Therefore, it can be seen as a reflection of the prevailing attitudes towards metals during that period. The insights gained from the analysis suggest that the Chu people of Xichuan, as reflected in the bronze weapons from Guozhuang, had a deep understanding of the properties of copper, tin, lead, and other metals. This understanding allowed them to consciously adjust the proportions of these metals based on the specific purposes of the weapons to achieve an optimal performance, functionality, and economy. The ability to align the copper–tin–lead ratios with different weapon functions demonstrates a sophisticated understanding of metallurgical principles. This conscious adjustment suggests a level of mastery in the production technology of bronze weapons.
It should be noted that one arrowhead (M3:59) in the sample contained 1.11% niobium. Its source could not be determined with the current evidence and requires further research.
The presence of minor and trace elements in alloys may indicate the use of different sources or recovered ores [22]. However, a chemical analysis of copper alloys cannot reliably determine the source of the metals because of the common practice of circulating, remelting, and mixing metals during recovery [23].
Previous research has identified two types of corrosion in bronze artifacts: one caused by the migration of Cl−, resulting in the preferential corrosion of the δ phase (the tin-rich phase), and the other caused by the migration of Cu+ (Cu2+) from the interior of the alloy to the exterior, resulting in the preferential corrosion of the α phase (the copper-rich phase) [24,25]. The different types of corrosion imply different burial environments for the artifacts [26,27,28,29].
The scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis results, as shown in Figure 3, indicated corrosion in all 12 samples, with evidence of corrosion layers. The innermost layer, corresponding to the α phase, initiated the corrosion, while the δ components with a higher Sn content did not corrode. In the outermost corrosion layer, the α phase was more severely corroded, while the δ phase remained unaffected. This pattern aligns with the second type of corrosion, suggesting that the artifacts were buried in a low-chloride environment. This corrosion analysis provides insights into the burial conditions and contributes to a comprehensive understanding of the preservation history of the bronze artifacts. Taking the bronze dagger-axes (M3:7) as an example, the observation area can be clearly divided into a three-layer structure, as shown in Figure 3a. The top left is the inner layer of the specimen, and the α phase portion of the middle layer is corroded. The α phase corrosion on the outermost layer is the most severe.
The alloy matrix exhibited an α-solid-solution dendritic structure with pronounced segregation. The (α + δ) eutectic structure was predominant and occurred in island-like or reticulated distributions. Typically, samples with a higher tin content showed a greater abundance of (α + δ) eutectic structures, while samples with a lower tin content showed fewer (α + δ) eutectic structures.
The bronze dagger-axe (M11:10) sample, with a tin content of 6.79%, displayed island-like (α + δ) eutectic structures in its metallographic microstructure (see Figure 4a). The bronze spear (M3:58) and bronze sword (M4:9) samples, with tin contents of 26.93% and 25.73%, respectively, showcased reticulated (α + δ) eutectic structures in their metallographic microstructures (see Figure 4i,j). These observations provide insights into the microstructural variations within the bronze alloy, indicating the influence of the tin content on the formation and distribution of (α + δ) eutectic structures(see Table 3).
In tin–lead bronze, the lead was unevenly distributed in the microstructure, appearing as varying-sized granules, dendritic structures, and flakes. This distribution may be attributed to lead’s propensity for segregation or corrosion-induced accumulation (see Figure 4e,f).
Typically, the samples with a higher lead content showed a greater prevalence of larger lead clusters in their metallographic microstructures. Three bronze dagger-axe samples (M5:32, M5:33, and M11:10) with lead contents of 28.96%, 27.92%, and 17.94%, respectively, showed the presence of large spherical lead particles (see Figure 4j–l). Conversely, the bronze dagger-axe (M3:59) with a lead content of 6.90% displayed smaller lead particles, predominantly in the form of fine granules (see Figure 4f). Two bronze dagger-axe samples (M3:30 and M5:31) contained 9.16% and 9.65% lead, respectively, in which the presence of lead was in the form of large spherical lead particles and fine lead particles mixed in (see Figure 4a,i).
These observations suggest a correlation between the lead content and the size and distribution of lead particles in the tin–lead bronze, providing valuable insights into the alloy’s microstructural variations.
A distinctive case is represented by one bronze dagger-axe (M3:37), which exhibited a post-casting heat-treated microstructure [30]. The matrix displayed a granular α-solid solution, with the dendritic segregation mostly eliminated. The (α + δ) eutectic structure was distributed along the grain boundaries. This sample also showed elongated precipitates and grain boundary defects. This particular sample’s microstructure indicated that the dagger-axe underwent a post-casting heat treatment, resulting in a certain degree of compositional homogenization (see Figure 3d and Figure 4d) [31]. But the specific reason for secondary heating is unknown.
This unique case added an interesting dimension to the study, highlighting the impact of post-casting heat treatment on the microstructural evolution of bronze artifacts.

4. Conclusions

Through the analyses conducted, this study provides preliminary insights into the technological characteristics of the bronze weapons excavated from the Xichuan site and the cultural information they contain. This research serves as a new scientific basis for understanding the development of bronze technology during the Warring States period, and contributes significantly to a deeper understanding of the Chu culture and its production and lifestyle.
(1)
The bronze weapons unearthed from the Guozhuang site date back to the mid-Warring States period. The period of the manufacture and use of bronze weapons is relatively close to the burial period of the tombs.
(2)
Severe corrosion was evident on the bronze weapons from the Xichuan site, primarily corroding the copper-rich α phase. The preservation conditions were suboptimal, highlighting the necessity for protective measures.
(3)
All the bronze weapons from the Guozhuang site were cast. Notably, the bronze dagger-axe (M3:37) underwent secondary heating after casting.
(4)
Among the 12 samples, half were tin–bronze and half were tin–lead bronze, with the tin content in the tin–bronze being mostly around 12%. The copper–tin and copper–tin–lead ratios demonstrated a certain scientific consistency.
(5)
The alloys of bronze weapons with similar shapes and functions exhibited relatively consistent compositions, some of which aligned with the alloy ratios mentioned in the Rites of Zhou–Kaogongji. This indicates a level of technological uniformity during that period and a recognition of bronze alloys.
In summary, this study provides a foundational understanding of the bronze weapons from the Xichuan site, shedding light on the technological and cultural aspects of the Warring States period in the region. However, there are still a number of issues that require further investigation, for example, the secondary heating of bronze weapons and the source of the 1.11% niobium content in XCJX6.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/met14040395/s1.

Author Contributions

Methodology, S.Z. (Shengwei Zhao) and S.Z. (Siyu Zhang); formal analysis, X.L. and Q.N.; investigation, Z.C.; data curation, S.Z. (Siyu Zhang) and Q.N.; writing—review and editing, X.Z.; funding acquisition, X.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China, grant number 52203126.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article and Supplementary Material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Jiachang Chen for his help.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Metals 14 00395 g001
Figure 1. Geographic location of Xichuan County. (a) Location map of Henan Province in China, (b) Location map of Xichuan County in Nanyang City and location map of Nanyang City in Henan Province, (c) Topographic map of Xichuan County.
Figure 1. Geographic location of Xichuan County. (a) Location map of Henan Province in China, (b) Location map of Xichuan County in Nanyang City and location map of Nanyang City in Henan Province, (c) Topographic map of Xichuan County.
Metals 14 00395 g001
Metals 14 00395 g003
Figure 3. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) microphotographs. (a) XCJX1 500×. (b) XCJX2 100×. (c) XCJX3 100×. (d) XCJX4 150×. (e) XCJX5 200×. (f) XCJX6 300×. (g) XCJX7 200×. (h) XCJX8 200×. (i) XCJX9 300×. (j) XCJX10 300×. (k) XCJX11 200×. (l) XCJX12 200×.
Figure 3. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) microphotographs. (a) XCJX1 500×. (b) XCJX2 100×. (c) XCJX3 100×. (d) XCJX4 150×. (e) XCJX5 200×. (f) XCJX6 300×. (g) XCJX7 200×. (h) XCJX8 200×. (i) XCJX9 300×. (j) XCJX10 300×. (k) XCJX11 200×. (l) XCJX12 200×.
Metals 14 00395 g003
Metals 14 00395 g004
Figure 4. Metallographic microstructure microphotograph. (a) XCJX1. (b) XCJX2. (c) XCJX3. (d) XCJX4. (e) XCJX5. (f) XCJX6. (g) XCJX7. (h) XCJX8. (i) XCJX9. (j) XCJX10. (k) XCJX11. (l) XCJX12.
Figure 4. Metallographic microstructure microphotograph. (a) XCJX1. (b) XCJX2. (c) XCJX3. (d) XCJX4. (e) XCJX5. (f) XCJX6. (g) XCJX7. (h) XCJX8. (i) XCJX9. (j) XCJX10. (k) XCJX11. (l) XCJX12.
Metals 14 00395 g004
Table 2. SEM-EDS component analysis results of the samples 4.
Table 2. SEM-EDS component analysis results of the samples 4.
No.Sample No.Vessel No.Main Element Content (Wt%)
CuSnPbClSiSNb
1XCJX1M3:741.82 ± 0.3946.88 ± 0.319.16 ± 0.220.85 ± 0.040.77 ± 0.050.53 ± 0.04-
2XCJX2M3:3086.87 ± 0.8013.12 ± 0.26-----
3XCJX3M3:3287.95 ± 0.8712.04 ± 0.28-----
4XCJX4M3:3786.13 ± 0.8513.86 ± 0.28-----
5XCJX5M3:5873.07 ± 0.5426.93 ± 0.26-----
6XCJX6M3:5977.13 ± 0.7514.87 ± 0.276.90 ± 0.28---1.11 ± 0.15
7 5XCJX7M4:974.2725.73-----
8XCJX8M4:1986.80 ± 0.6413.20 ± 0.27-----
9XCJX9M5:3176.61 ± 0.7313.74 ± 0.269.65 ± 0.29----
10XCJX10M5:3260.99 ± 0.5510.05 ± 0.2028.96 ± 0.37----
11XCJX11M5:3358.92 ± 0.6011.92 ± 0.2427.92 ± 0.41-1.25 ± 0.07--
12XCJX12M11:1075.05 ± 1.526.79 ± 0.5817.94 ± 2.81-0.22 ± 0.16--
4. The data were normalized. 5. The original data have already been lost.
Table 3. Results of metallographic microstructure analysis.
Table 3. Results of metallographic microstructure analysis.
No.Sample No.Vessel No.Results of Metallographic Structure ObservationProduction Method
1XCJX1M3:7α-solid-solution dendritic-segregation structure; numerous (α + δ) eutectic phases interconnected in a reticular pattern; and lead distributed unevenly in fine granular, large ellipsoidal, and irregular shapes.Casting
2XCJX2M3:30α-solid-solution dendritic-segregation structure; numerous (α + δ) eutectic phases interconnected in a reticular pattern with fine dendrites.Casting
3XCJX3M3:32α-solid-solution dendritic-segregation structure; a large number of (α + δ) eutectic phases distributed in an island-like pattern; and casting shrinkage cavities.Casting
4XCJX4M3:37α-solid-solution appeared in a granular form; (α + δ) eutectic phases were distributed along grain boundaries; and there was severe corrosion at the grain boundaries.Subjected to heat after casting
5XCJX5M3:58α-solid-solution dendritic-segregation structure; numerous (α + δ) eutectic phases interconnected in a reticular pattern.Casting
6XCJX6M3:59α-solid-solution dendritic-segregation structure; a large number of (α + δ) eutectic phases distributed in an island-like pattern; and lead was unevenly distributed in fine granular and large ellipsoidal shapes.Casting
7XCJX7M4:9α-solid-solution dendritic segregation structure; numerous (α + δ) eutectic phases interconnected in a reticular pattern.Casting
8XCJX8M4:19α-solid-solution dendritic-segregation structure; a large number of (α + δ) eutectic phases distributed in an island-like pattern.Casting
9XCJX9M5:31α-solid-solution dendritic-segregation structure; a large number of (α + δ) eutectic phases distributed in an island-like pattern; and lead was unevenly distributed in fine granular and large ellipsoidal shapes.Casting
10XCJX10M5:32The matrix was severely corroded and mineralized, with preferential corrosion of the α phase. Most of the α-phase grain boundaries were severely corroded, intertwining into a reticular pattern. Residual α-solid-solution phases and (α + δ) eutectic phases were distributed in an island-like pattern.Casting
11XCJX11M5:33α-solid-solution dendritic-segregation structure; numerous (α + δ) eutectic phases interconnected in a reticular pattern; and lead was unevenly distributed in fine granular and large ellipsoidal shapes.Casting
12XCJX12M11:10α-solid-solution dendritic-segregation structure; a large number of (α + δ) eutectic phases distributed in an island-like pattern; and lead was unevenly distributed in fine granular and large ellipsoidal shapes.Casting
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Zhao, S.; Liu, X.; Chen, Z.; Zhang, S.; Niu, Q.; Zhao, X. Study on the Bronze Weapons Excavated from Xichuan, China. Metals 2024, 14, 395. https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040395

AMA Style

Zhao S, Liu X, Chen Z, Zhang S, Niu Q, Zhao X. Study on the Bronze Weapons Excavated from Xichuan, China. Metals. 2024; 14(4):395. https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040395

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zhao, Shengwei, Xin Liu, Zhen Chen, Siyu Zhang, Qing Niu, and Xing Zhao. 2024. "Study on the Bronze Weapons Excavated from Xichuan, China" Metals 14, no. 4: 395. https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040395

APA Style

Zhao, S., Liu, X., Chen, Z., Zhang, S., Niu, Q., & Zhao, X. (2024). Study on the Bronze Weapons Excavated from Xichuan, China. Metals, 14(4), 395. https://doi.org/10.3390/met14040395

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