Risk Assessment of Nephrotoxic Metals in Soil and Water in Areas with High Prevalence of Chronic Kidney Disease in Panama
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Sample Collection
2.2. Water Analysis
2.3. Soil Analysis
2.3.1. Soil Analysis by Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES)
2.3.2. Analysis of Soil Samples via X-ray Spectrometry
2.4. Calculation of the Non-Carcinogenic Risk Assessment
2.5. Total Risk Assessment
2.6. Mapping
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Metals in Water
3.2. Metals in Soil
3.3. Geographical Distribution of Metals in Soil
3.4. Evaluation of Non-Carcinogenic Toxicological Risk
3.5. Blend Effect Evaluation, Total Risk, and Genotoxic Evaluation
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Season | Community | Arsenic † µg L−1 | Mercury † µg L−1 | Cadmium † µg L−1 | Lead † µg L−1 | Vanadium ‡ µg L−1 | Silicon ‡ mg L−1 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Winter 2021 | Santa Rita | <0.10 | 0.12 ± 0.02 | <0.10 | 9.63 ± 0.23 | 1.69 ± 0.08 | 47.0 ± 2.1 |
Tulú | <0.10 | 0.22 ± 0.02 | <0.10 | 2.32 ± 0.20 | 2.73 ± 0.08 | 17.6 ± 0.8 | |
Coclé | 0.20 ± 0.04 | 0.12 ± 0.02 | <0.10 | 21.2 ± 0.41 | 0.91 ± 0.08 | 39.1 ± 1.8 | |
Nata | 0.31 ± 0.04 | 0.07 ± 0.02 | <0.10 | 5.91 ± 0.19 | 9.23 ± 0.12 | 43.3 ± 2.0 | |
El Caño | 0.63 ± 0.04 | 0.06 ± 0.02 | <0.10 | 3.29 ± 0.17 | 12.8 ± 0.2 | 28.7 ± 1.3 | |
Summer 2021 | Santa Rita | 1.15 ± 0.06 | <0.03 | <0.10 | <0.30 | 1.15 ± 0.06 | 11.1 ± 0.55 |
Tulú | <0.10 | <0.03 | <0.10 | <0.30 | 1.01 ± 0.05 | 10.60 ± 0.53 | |
Coclé | 0.52 ± 0.03 | <0.03 | <0.10 | <0.30 | 2.02 ± 0.10 | 30.3 ± 1.5 | |
Nata | <0.10 | <0.03 | <0.10 | <0.30 | <0.30 | 7.93 ± 0.40 | |
El Caño | 0.41 ± 0.02 | <0.03 | <0.10 | <0.30 | 1.78 ± 0.09 | 10.20 ± 0.51 | |
Winter 2022 | Santa Rita | <0.10 | <0.03 | <0.10 | <0.30 | <0.30 | 1.70 ± 0.3 |
Tulú | <0.10 | <0.03 | <0.10 | <0.30 | <0.30 | 17.0 ± 2.0 | |
Coclé | 7.70 ± 0.9 | <0.03 | 2.1 ± 0.6 | 33.0 ± 4.0 | 11.0 ± 4.0 | 4.40 ± 0.3 | |
Nata | 5.30 ± 0.60 | <0.03 | <0.10 | <0.30 | <0.30 | 14.5 ± 0.4 | |
El Caño | <0.10 | <0.03 | <0.10 | <0.30 | <0.30 | 7.00 ± 0.3 | |
Summer 2022 | Santa Rita | <0.10 | <0.03 | <0.10 | <0.30 | <0.30 | 13.6 ± 0.4 |
Tulú | <0.10 | <0.03 | <0.10 | <0.30 | <0.30 | 20.0 ± 2.0 | |
Coclé | <0.10 | <0.03 | <0.10 | <0.30 | <0.30 | 4.6 ± 0.3 | |
Nata | 6.0 ± 0.7 | <0.03 | <0.10 | <0.30 | <0.30 | 4.6 ± 0.3 | |
El Caño | <0.10 | <0.03 | <0.10 | <0.30 | <0.30 | 0.8 ± 0.3 |
Metal | Minimum mg kg−1 | Maximum mg kg−1 | Mean mg kg−1 | Median mg kg−1 | SD | Unc | 95th Percentile * | GVH ** | GVC *** | MAC **** | EPA ***** |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Arsenic | 1.86 | 106.01 | 11.81 | 4.99 | 20.80 | 0.02 | 13.1 | 50 | 1.80 | 15–20 | 0.68 |
Lead | 5.01 | 25.01 | 8.31 | 6.00 | 4.58 | 0.02 | 40.2 | 200 | 12.5 | 20–300 | 400 |
Chromium | 1.25 | 54.10 | 7.26 | 4.48 | 8.31 | 0.02 | 74.0 | 200 | 100 | 50–200 | 0.3 |
Vanadium | 12.3 | 440.01 | 69.21 | 41.6 | 74.30 | 0.02 | 139 | 150 | 135 | --- | 390 |
Rubidium | 5.01 | 185.01 | 45.80 | 28.0 | 46.01 | 1–7 | 122 | --- | 90 | --- | --- |
Nickel | 6.0 | 44.0 | 8.0 | 8.0 | 8.76 | 2–6 | 39.9 | 100 | 75 | 20 | --- |
Metal Concentration | Parameter | Arsenic | Lead | Chromium | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Child | Adult | Child | Adult | Child | Adult | ||
Average | HQ Ingestion | 0.39 | 0.07 | 0.06 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.01 |
HQ Inhalation | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | |
HQ Dermal | 0.09 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | |
HI Total | 0.40 | 0.08 | 0.06 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.01 | |
Maximum | HQ Ingestion | 3.50 | 0.63 | 0.18 | 0.03 | 0.18 | 0.03 |
HQ Inhalation | 0.00 | 0.09 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | |
HQ Dermal | 0.05 | 0.11 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | |
HI Total | 3.60 | 0.74 | 0.18 | 0.04 | 0.18 | 0.04 |
Age Group | Metal | Delivered Dose (Ds) | Hazard Quotient (HQ) | Combined Hazard Index (HIc) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Child | Arsenic | 1.2 × 10−6 | 1.09 × 10−5 | 8.77 × 10−5 |
Lead | 2.82 × 10−7 | 2.57 × 10−6 | ||
Chromium | 6.11 × 10−7 | 5.55 × 10−6 | ||
Vanadium | 4.97 × 10−6 | 4.52 × 10−5 | ||
Rubidium | 2.09 × 10−6 | 1.90 × 10−5 | ||
Nickel | 4.97 × 10−7 | 4.52 × 10−6 | ||
Adult | Arsenic | 2.39 × 10−7 | 2.18 × 10−6 | 1.75 × 10−5 |
Lead | 5.65 × 10−8 | 5.13 × 10−7 | ||
Chromium | 1.22 × 10−7 | 1.11 × 10−6 | ||
Vanadium | 9.94 × 10−7 | 9.04 × 10−6 | ||
Rubidium | 4.18 × 10−7 | 3.80 × 10−6 | ||
Nickel | 9.94 × 10−8 | 9.04 × 10−7 |
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Valdés-Rodríguez, B.; Montero-Campos, V.; Siebecker, M.G.; Zimmerman, A.J.; Vega-Araya, M.; Ulate Chacón, S.P.; Rovira, D. Risk Assessment of Nephrotoxic Metals in Soil and Water in Areas with High Prevalence of Chronic Kidney Disease in Panama. Geosciences 2024, 14, 221. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences14080221
Valdés-Rodríguez B, Montero-Campos V, Siebecker MG, Zimmerman AJ, Vega-Araya M, Ulate Chacón SP, Rovira D. Risk Assessment of Nephrotoxic Metals in Soil and Water in Areas with High Prevalence of Chronic Kidney Disease in Panama. Geosciences. 2024; 14(8):221. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences14080221
Chicago/Turabian StyleValdés-Rodríguez, Benedicto, Virginia Montero-Campos, Matthew G. Siebecker, Amanda Jo Zimmerman, Mauricio Vega-Araya, Sharon P. Ulate Chacón, and Dalys Rovira. 2024. "Risk Assessment of Nephrotoxic Metals in Soil and Water in Areas with High Prevalence of Chronic Kidney Disease in Panama" Geosciences 14, no. 8: 221. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences14080221