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Antioxidants
Volume 12
Issue 4
10.3390/antiox12040948
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Review

Vitamin D Determinants, Status, and Antioxidant/Anti-inflammatory-Related Effects in Cardiovascular Risk and Disease: Not the Last Word in the Controversy

by
Giulia Della Nera
1,
Laura Sabatino
2,
Melania Gaggini
2,
Francesca Gorini
2 and
Cristina Vassalle
1,*
1
Fondazione CNR-Regione Toscana G Monasterio, 56124 Pisa, Italy
2
Istituto di Fisiologia Clinica, CNR, 56124 Pisa, Italy
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Antioxidants 2023, 12(4), 948; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox12040948
Submission received: 10 March 2023 / Revised: 14 April 2023 / Accepted: 15 April 2023 / Published: 18 April 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Melatonin and Vitamin D in Diseases and Health)
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Abstract

Beyond its key role in calcium homeostasis, vitamin D has been found to significantly affect the cardiovascular (CV) system. In fact, low vitamin D levels have been associated with increased CV risk, as well as increased CV morbidity and mortality. The majority of effects of this molecule are related directly or indirectly to its antioxidative and anti-inflammatory properties. Generally, vitamin D insufficiency is considered for 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) levels between 21–29 ng/mL (corresponding to 52.5–72.5 nmol/L), deficiency as 25(OH)D levels less than 20 ng/mL (<50 nmol/L), and extreme deficiency as 25(OH)D less than 10 ng/mL (<25 nmol/L). However, the definition of an optimal vitamin D status, as defined by 25(OH)D, remains controversial for many extra-bone conditions, including CV disease. In this review, confounding factors affecting the 25(OH)D measurement and status will be discussed. In particular, available evidence on the mechanism and role of vitamin D in relation to CV risk and disease through its antioxidant effect will be reported, also facing the aspect regarding the debate on the minimum blood 25(OH)D level required to ensure optimal CV health.
Keywords: vitamin D; 25(OH)D; antioxidant; determinants; vitamin D status; cardiovascular risk; cardiovascular disease; blood reference levels; threshold; oxidative stress; inflammation; biomarkers vitamin D; 25(OH)D; antioxidant; determinants; vitamin D status; cardiovascular risk; cardiovascular disease; blood reference levels; threshold; oxidative stress; inflammation; biomarkers

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MDPI and ACS Style

Della Nera, G.; Sabatino, L.; Gaggini, M.; Gorini, F.; Vassalle, C. Vitamin D Determinants, Status, and Antioxidant/Anti-inflammatory-Related Effects in Cardiovascular Risk and Disease: Not the Last Word in the Controversy. Antioxidants 2023, 12, 948. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox12040948

AMA Style

Della Nera G, Sabatino L, Gaggini M, Gorini F, Vassalle C. Vitamin D Determinants, Status, and Antioxidant/Anti-inflammatory-Related Effects in Cardiovascular Risk and Disease: Not the Last Word in the Controversy. Antioxidants. 2023; 12(4):948. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox12040948

Chicago/Turabian Style

Della Nera, Giulia, Laura Sabatino, Melania Gaggini, Francesca Gorini, and Cristina Vassalle. 2023. "Vitamin D Determinants, Status, and Antioxidant/Anti-inflammatory-Related Effects in Cardiovascular Risk and Disease: Not the Last Word in the Controversy" Antioxidants 12, no. 4: 948. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox12040948

APA Style

Della Nera, G., Sabatino, L., Gaggini, M., Gorini, F., & Vassalle, C. (2023). Vitamin D Determinants, Status, and Antioxidant/Anti-inflammatory-Related Effects in Cardiovascular Risk and Disease: Not the Last Word in the Controversy. Antioxidants, 12(4), 948. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox12040948

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