Microscopy and Spectroscopy Techniques for Characterization of Polymeric Membranes
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Morphology Analysis
2.1. Scanning Electron Microscopy
2.1.1. Sample Preparation
2.1.2. Data Interpretation
2.1.3. Limitations
Study | Membrane | Methodology | Conclusion | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Dense surface | Polyetherimide | Cut samples in liquid nitrogen. Gold coat samples. | No pores thus a dense membrane. | [15] |
Pore size measurements | Polyethersulfone | Cut samples in liquid nitrogen. Used an imaging software to determine the pore size. | Average pore size of 30 nm. | [25] |
Membrane thickness | poly(1-trimethylsilyl-1-propyne) (PTMSP) | Immersed samples in isopropanol. Cut samples in liquid nitrogen. Coated samples with gold. | Average PTMSP thickness of 1.5 μm. | [17] |
Particle size measurements | Copolymer of polysulfone (PS) and polyacrylic acid (PAA) | Freeze-dried samples. Sputter-coated samples with platinum. | Particle size ranging from 1 to 7 μm. | [21] |
2.2. Transmission Electron Microscopy
2.2.1. Sample Preparation
2.2.2. Data Interpretation
2.2.3. Limitations
2.3. Atomic Force Microscopy
2.3.1. Sample Preparation
2.3.2. Data Interpretation
2.3.3. Limitations
Study | Membrane | Methodology | Conclusion | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Roughness measurements | Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) /polyvinylalcohol (PA) | Samples in contact mode with silicon nitride probe. Scan area of 5 μm by 5 μm. Five areas were analyzed. | Roughness decreased from 54 to 37 nm indicating a fouling. | [46] |
Pore size distribution | Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) | Dried samples at 40 °C overnight. Semi-contact mode. Image processing by NT-MDT software. | Average pore size of 0.3 μm. | [50] |
Membrane stiffness | Polymer of intrinsic microporosity (PIM-1) | Contact-mode analysis. Probe radius of 8 nm. Derjaguin–Muller–Toporov (DMT) method to calculate Young’s modulus. | Elasticity decrease with membrane depth. | [51] |
3. Crystal Structure Analysis
3.1. X-ray Diffraction
3.1.1. Sample Preparation
3.1.2. Data Interpretation
3.1.3. Limitations
3.2. X-ray Scattering
3.2.1. Sample Preparation
3.2.2. Data Interpretation
3.2.3. Limitations
4. Functional Groups Analysis
4.1. Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
4.1.1. Sample Preparation
4.1.2. Data Interpretation
4.1.3. Limitations
Wavelength (cm−1) | Functional Group | Chemical Class |
---|---|---|
3200–3500 | OH– | Alcohols |
2500–3300 | OH– | Carboxylic acids |
2800–3000 | N–H | Amine salts |
3267–3333 | C–H | alkynes |
3000–3100 | C–H | alkenes |
2840–3000 | C–H | Alkanes |
2349 | O=C=O | carbon dioxide |
1380–1415 | S=O | sulfates |
Study | Membrane | Methodology | Conclusion | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Polymer-solvent compatibility | Polysulfone | Not reported. | Functional groups of only aryl ethers, aryl sulfones and methyl were detected indicating no interaction with the solvent (solvent is compatible). | [93] |
Polymer-filler interaction | Polyetherimide with metal-organic framework filler (MIL-53) | FTIR Spectrum recorded at 4000–500 cm−1. | Peaks of (C-N), (Si-O), (CO2–), and (Al-O) indicated that MIL-53 was successfully incorporated in the polymer matrix. | [94] |
4.2. Raman Spectroscopy
4.2.1. Sample Preparation
4.2.2. Data Interpretation
4.2.3. Limitation
Study | Membrane | Methodology | Conclusion | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Crystal structure | Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) | Membrane layers were superimposed in a solid sampler. Spectrum recorded at 2 cm−1 resolution. | Additional peak at 795 cm−1 indicated formation of trans-Gauche sequence structure. | [101] |
Membrane degradation | Perfluorinated sulfonic-acid (PFSA) | Samples mounted vertically. He-Ne laser and Peltier-cooled charge coupled device (CCD) to detect Raman spectrum. Resolution of < 2 cm−1. | Decrease in intensity of C–O–C, C–S and S–O bonds indicated membrane degradation. | [111] |
4.3. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
4.3.1. Sample Preparation
4.3.2. Data Interpretation
4.3.3. Limitations
5. Elemental Composition Analysis
5.1. Energy-Dispersion X-Ray Spectroscopy
5.1.1. Sample Preparation
5.1.2. Data Interpretation
5.1.3. Limitations
5.2. X-Ray Fluorescence
5.2.1. Sample Preparation
5.2.2. Data Interpretation
5.2.3. Limitations
5.3. X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy
5.3.1. Sample Preparation
5.3.2. Data Interpretation
5.3.3. Limitations
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Study | Membrane | Methodology | Conclusion | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Agglomeration of particles in membranes | Polybenzimidazole (PBI) with titanium oxides particles | Cut samples in liquid nitrogen. Gold coated samples. | Low agglomeration effect | [31] |
Film thickness | Polyacrylic acid (PAA)/polysulfone (PSf) | Stained samples by sodium hydroxide. Immersed samples in uranyl nitrate for 15 min. Washed samples with distilled water. Cut samples to 60-100 nm in thickness by ultramicrotome. | PAA film of 20 nm. | [29] |
Study | Membrane | Methodology | Conclusion | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Membrane purity | Polyetherimide | Samples fractured in liquid nitrogen. Carbon tape to hold the samples. | Only polyetherimide peaks were detected indicating a pure sample. | [15] |
Polymer Crystallinity | Polyethersulfone with aluminosilicate particles | Not reported. | Intensity increased indicating a more crystallized structure with better mechanical properties. | [66] |
Polymer chain distance (d-space) | 6H,12H-5,11-methanodibenzo[b,f][1,5]diazocine [PIM-EA(Me2)-TB] | Not reported. | Increase in d-space indicated transformation from glassy to rubbery phase. | [69] |
Study | Membrane | Methodology | Conclusion | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Polymer-filler interaction and particle size measurements | Sulfonated poly(aryl ether ketone) (SPEEK) with phosphomolybdic acid (PMoA) filler | Fixed wavelength of 1.5Å. Vacuum operation at room temperature. Data calibrated using positron-emission tomography (PET). | No detection of –SO3H group indicated no nano-phase separation. Broad peak showed amorphous SPEEK structure. Particle radius of 524 Å. | [80] |
Pore size measurements | Polymer of intrinsic microporosity (PIM) with amidoxime groups | Not reported. | Pore size distribution from 3.9 to 5.9 Å. | [78] |
Study | Membrane | Methodology | Conclusion | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Membrane purity | Polyetherimide | Spinning carbon (13C) to generate the magnetic field. | Only peaks of carboxylic acid, carboxylic-amide-carbon, phenyl-carbon-oxygen, and carbon-aromatic ring-amine were detected indicating a pure polyetherimide. | [19] |
Polymer-filler interaction | Polysulfone with functionalized carbon nanotubes | Dissolved samples in deuterated chloroform. | Peaks of NH2 protons and amino-benzo-crown ether demonstrated the functionalization of carbon nanotubes in the polymer. | [121] |
Polymer miscibility | Polysulfone and polyvinyl methyl ether(PVME) | Not reported | Increase in polymer intensity in the mixture indicated a good mixing. | [123] |
Membrane degradation | Perfluorinated ionomer (Nafion® 117) | Solid-state 19F NMR. Inserted samples in rotors filled with alcohol or water. | Detection of F−, SO4−2, and OH− indicated membrane decomposition | [125] |
Study | Membrane | Methodology | Conclusion | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Membrane purity | Polyetherimide | Cut samples in liquid nitrogen. Coated samples by gold. | No additional elements to polyetherimide were detected indicating a pure sample. | [15] |
Restoration of a fouled membrane by chemical cleaning | Polypiperazine-amide | Not reported | Reduction in sulfur content due to chemical cleaning showed membrane restoration. | [131] |
Filler chemical formula | Poly(vinyl alcohol) and bismuth(III) oxide fillers | Not reported | The calculated formula matched bismuth(III) oxide. | [132] |
Study | Membrane | Methodology | Conclusion | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Chemical formula of filler | Polycarbonate and iron chloride filler | Not reported | Elemental composition of iron and chloride gives chemical formula of FeCl3 that matched the added filler. | [139] |
Mercury extraction from natural waters | Trioctylmethylammonium thiosalicylate (TOMATS) | Cut sample to disks of 1 to 3 cm in diameter. Palladium target X-ray tube with beryllium window. SPECTRA EDX software for intensity measurements. | Mercury extraction by the membrane was monitored by detecting the amounts of mercury in the polymer. | [140] |
Study | Membrane | Methodology | Conclusion | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|
Surface chemical composition | polyol-grafted polysulfone | Monochromatic Al Kα X-ray source. Measurements at 45° take-off angle. Survey scan from 0 to 1000 eV then high-resolution scans of C1s regions. | O1s intensity increased while C1s intensity decreased confirming the grafting of hydroxyl groups on the membrane surface. | [148] |
Membrane degradation | Nafion® 112 | Monochromator with Al Kα source. Step of 0.025 eV with 100ms. | Polymer backbone was decomposed due to detection of fluoride and sulfate ions. | [151] |
Technique | Performed studies | Advantages | Limitations |
---|---|---|---|
SEM | Surface topography. Pore size. Particle size Membrane Thickness | Magnification of up to 1 million. | Samples needs to be conductive. Not accurate for measurements less 10 nm. |
TEM | Nanoparticles. Nanofilms. Nanopores. Membrane thickness. | Higher resolution than SEM. | Images does not show topography data. Staining the sample may be required. Thick samples (> 100μm) are difficult to be analyzed in TEM. |
AFM | Nano-profiling. Surface roughness. Pore size distribution. Membrane stiffness. | No sample preparation. Similar resolution to TEM. Measurements of mechanical properties. | Requires more processing time. Lower depth of field. |
XRD | Membrane purity. Compounds chemical formula. Crystal structure. Polymer chain distance. | No sample preparation. Detection of wide range of crystalline compounds. | Heavy elements are less sensitive to XRD. Less accuracy for small crystals. Peaks overlap for some compounds. |
SAXS WAXS | Crystal structure. Polymer-filler interaction. Particle size distribution. Pore size measurements. | No sample preparation. Suitable for semi- and non-crystalline materials. More accurate average measurements for particle size and pore size. | Scattering intensity can be weak for some systems. |
FTIR | Functional groups. Polymer-solvent compatibility. Polymer-filler interaction. Miscibility of polymer blends. Membrane degradation. | Detection of variety of compounds. High sensitivity of parts per million (ppm). Fast analysis time (in seconds). | Cannot analyze aqueous samples. Cannot detect molecules of two identical atoms. |
Raman | Functional groups. Crystal structure. Polymer chain orientation. Polymer blends. Membrane fouling. | No sample preparation. More sensitive to functional groups with better intensity peaks. | Release of fluorescent light of some samples may cause background noise. Polar molecules have lower Raman signal. |
NMR | Functional groups. Polymer-blend miscibility. Membrane decomposition. | Less background interference. Detection of polar molecules. | Liquid samples. Paramagnetic elements have less NMR signal. |
EDS | Elemental composition. Chemical formula of fillers. Membrane fouling. | Fast analysis time. | Samples needs to be conductive. Limitation in detecting light elements. Cannot quantify ions. |
XRF | Elemental composition. Chemical formula of fillers. Membrane degradation. | No sample preparation. In-situ analysis. | Very low sensitivity to hydrogen, carbon and oxygen. Cannot quantify ions. Unsuitable for thin film measurements. |
XPS | Elemental composition. Functional groups. Formula of chemical compounds. Membrane degradation. | High sensitivity. Quantification of ions. Measurements of thin films of nm. | Solid samples. Cannot detect hydrogen and helium. Peaks Overlap for some elements. Long processing time. |
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Alqaheem, Y.; Alomair, A.A. Microscopy and Spectroscopy Techniques for Characterization of Polymeric Membranes. Membranes 2020, 10, 33. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes10020033
Alqaheem Y, Alomair AA. Microscopy and Spectroscopy Techniques for Characterization of Polymeric Membranes. Membranes. 2020; 10(2):33. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes10020033
Chicago/Turabian StyleAlqaheem, Yousef, and Abdulaziz A. Alomair. 2020. "Microscopy and Spectroscopy Techniques for Characterization of Polymeric Membranes" Membranes 10, no. 2: 33. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes10020033