Physical and Mechanical Characteristics of Gelatin-Based Films as a Potential Food Packaging Material: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Sources of Gelatin
2.1. Gelatin from Mammalian Sources
2.2. Gelatin from Marine Sources
2.3. Gelatin from Poultry Sources
3. Film Forming Properties of Gelatin
4. Physical Properties of Gelatin-Based Film
4.1. Thickness of Gelatin-Based Film
4.2. Color of Gelatin-Based Film
4.3. Light Transmission and Transparency of Gelatin-Based Film
4.3.1. Ultraviolet Light Transmission of Gelatin-Based Film
4.3.2. Visible Light Transmission of Gelatin-Based Film
4.3.3. Light Transparency of Gelatin-Based Film
4.4. Water Vapor Permeability (WVP) of Gelatin-Based Film
4.5. Melting Point (Tm) of Gelatin-Based Film
5. Mechanical Properties of Gelatin-Based Film
5.1. Tensile Strength of Gelatin-Based Film
5.2. Elongation at Break (EAB) of Gelatin-Based Film
6. Biodegradability of Gelatin-Based Film
7. Current and Future Trends
8. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Gelatin Film | Physical Properties | Mechanical Properties | References | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Thickness (mm) | Color | Light Transmission (nm) | Light Transparency (%) | Water Vapor Transmission Rate (g/m s Pa) | Thermal | Biodegration Rate (%) | Tensile Strength (MPa) | Elongation at Break (EAB) (%) | ||||||
L* | a* | b* | 200–280 | 350–800 | Tm/Tmax (°C) | |||||||||
Bovine composite film | Bovine/CMC/ chitosan | - | - | - | - | 0.15 | - | 1.70 | 1.06–1.84 × 10−15 | - | 4.16–30.49 | - | - | [63] |
Bovine /CMC | - | - | - | - | 2.50–4.00 | 0.82–0.65 | 2.88 | 1.59 × 10−4 | - | - | 11.80 | 257 | [66] | |
Bovine/N-chitin | 0.11 | - | - | - | 0.07–1.11 | 2.73–4.05 | 2.50 | 8.89 × 10−10 | 102.9 | - | 119.09 | - | [38] | |
Bovine/0.1,0.2,0.3 corn oil | 0.11–0.15 | - | - | - | 0.06–0.83 | 1.47–3.02 | 5.38–5.94 | 7.68–7.86 × 10−10 | 104.50–113.00 | - | 28.08–39.47 | - | [38] | |
Bovine hide/oregano essential oils | 0.10–0.13 | 88.89–89.12 | −0.24–0.23 | 2.02–5.12 | - | - | - | 0.81–1.21 × 10−10 | - | - | 8.90–14.00 | 8.30–10.10 | [77] | |
Bovine hide/lavender essential oils | 0.07–0.11 | 88.02–89.00 | −0.60–(−0.29) | 4.96–7.23 | - | - | - | 0.68–1.27 × 10−10 | - | - | 8.80–15.40 | 4.30–7.60 | [77] | |
Bovine/Zataria multiflora essential oil | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 2.70–4.40 | 125.00–172.00 | [88] | |
Bovine/methyl orange indicator | 0.05 | 47.02–80.30 | 17.11–58.34 | −4.17–65.27 | - | - | - | 6.71–8.28 × 10−11 | - | - | - | - | [18] | |
Bovine/neutral red indicator | 0.05 | 50.63–64.93 | 16.81–58.01 | 4.64–25.85 | - | - | - | 8.58–8.90 × 10−11 | - | - | - | - | [18] | |
Bovine/ bromocresol green indicator | 0.05 | 43.33–91.53 | −5.73–(−10.66) | −47.01–31.57 | - | - | - | 8.62–9.90 × 10−11 | - | - | - | - | [18] | |
Bovine/curcumin extract | 0.05–0.06 | 28.00–89.10 | −2.40–35.80 | 19.10–86.40 | - | - | - | 0.90–1.20 × 10−10 | - | - | 1.90–3.40 | 144.30–198.60 | [39] | |
Bovine/red cabbage extract | 0.05–0.06 | - | - | - | - | - | - | 6.50–12.00 × 10−11 | - | - | - | - | [39] | |
Bovine/CMC/ Chitosan | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 40.09–85.50 | - | - | [89] | |
Bovine/carrot residue fiber | - | - | - | - | 0.02–0.51 | 0.03–58.91 | - | - | - | - | - | - | [90] | |
Bovine/ butterfly pea anthocyanin | 0.04 | 33.00 | 3.30 | −23.00 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 2.10 | [71] | |
Pig gelatin composite film | Pig skin/chitosan | - | 90.40 | 1.10 | 2.70 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | [91] |
Pig skin/eugenol essential oil | - | 89.60 | 3.20 | 17.00 | - | - | - | - | - | - | 12.00 | 59.00 | [91] | |
Pig skin/ginger essential oil | - | 92.40 | 1.70 | 4.60 | - | - | - | - | - | - | 35.00 | 51.00 | [91] | |
Pig skin/boldo extract | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 3.20 | 56.00 | [92] | |
Pig skin/guarana extract | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 3.80 | 51.00 | [92] | |
Pig skin/cinnamon extract | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 3.30 | 51.00 | [92] | |
Pig skin/rosemary extract | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 3.30 | 65.00 | [92] | |
Porcine skin/furcellaran/pu-erh extract | 0.10–0.14 | 82.98–89.30 | −1.18–0.21 | 14.52–34.40 | - | - | - | - | 158.40–168.90 | - | - | - | [72] | |
Porcine skin/furcellaran/green tea extract | 0.10–0.12 | 55.71–79.16 | 7.80–28.27 | 28.56–61.09 | - | - | - | - | 161.80–174.10 | - | - | - | [72] | |
Porcine skin/furcellaran | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 173.50 | - | - | - | [72] | |
Bovine | Bovine hide | - | - | - | - | 0–24.41 | 63.90–88.76 | 0.59–0.61 | 3.32–3.56 × 10−10 | - | - | - | - | [93] |
Bovine hide | 0.11 | 89.07 | 1.7 | 4.6 | - | - | - | 1.46 × 10−10 | - | - | 17.70 | - | [77] | |
Beef skin (4%, 6% and 8% gelatin concentration) | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | [25] | |
Bovine | 0.05 | 93.35–94.41 | −1.07–(−0.79) | 2.05–2.70 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | [18] | |
Bovine | 0.05–0.06 | 93.30–97.30 | −1.07–(−0.40) | 2.00–5.40 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | [39] | |
Bovine | - | - | - | - | 0.05–2.21 | 3.61–5.44 | 2.43 | 9.68 × 10−10 | 82.80 | - | - | 4.63 | [38] | |
Bovine | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 60.42 | 48.81–55.29 | - | - | [89] | |
Bovine | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 6.03–30.17 | - | - | [63] | |
Bovine | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 2.97 | - | [94] | |
Bovine | 0.13 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 51.68 | 30.83 | [74] | |
Bovine | 0.04 | 90.00 | −1.27 | 2.50 | - | - | - | 8 × 10−11 | - | - | 0.70 | 0.78 | [71] | |
Pig skin | Pork skin | - | 96.33–96.97 | −0.27–(−0.39) | 2.38–3.22 | - | - | - | - | - | - | 4.46–10.64 | 48.01–90.55 | [25] |
Pig skin | - | 90 | 1.1 | 2.2 | - | - | - | - | - | - | 31 | - | [91] | |
Pig skin | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 2.4 | 4.4 | [92] | |
Porcine | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 61.71 | - | - | - | [89] | |
Porcine | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 3.21 | - | [94] | |
Porcine | 0.11 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 63.25 | - | [74] | |
Porcine skin | 0.10 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | [72] | |
Porcine skin | 0.70 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | [73] | |
Pig skin | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 66.80 | - | - | - | [95] | |
Porcine | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 87.70 | - | - | - | [96] |
Gelatin Film | Physical Properties | Mechanical Properties | References | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Thickness (mm) | Color | Light Transmission (nm) | Light Transparency (%) | Water Vapor Transmission Rate (g/m s Pa) | Thermal | Biodegradation Rate (%) | Tensile Strength (MPa) | Elongation at Break (EAB) (%) | ||||||
L* | a* | b* | 200–280 | 350–800 | Tm/Tmax (°C) | |||||||||
Marine composite film | Unicorn leatherjacket skin/bergamot essential oil | - | 79.59–83.20 | 0.55–2.10 | 5.26–6.62 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | [97] |
Unicorn leatherjacket skin/lemongrass essential oil | - | 83.51–86.72 | 0.29–0.83 | 4.16–5.79 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | [97] | |
Cold fish skin/ silver-copper nanoparticles | - | 30.21–52.64 | −0.76–2.26 | 7.74–13.44 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | [98] | |
Tilapia skin/ epigallocatechin gallate | - | 89.06–89.36 | −1.39–(−1.35) | 1.79–1.88 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | [99] | |
Tilapia skin/ginger essential oils | - | 89.84–90.53 | −2.83–(−1.88) | 4.00–12.23 | 0.00–17.85 | 26.51–86.97 | 1.60–3.02 | 1.88–2.61 × 10−11 | - | - | 18.58–35.73 | 41.70–72.03 | [100] | |
Tilapia skin/turmeric root essential oils | - | 90.04–90.92 | −2.98–(−2.20) | 6.34–13.43 | 0.00–0.70 | 13.44–87.12 | 1.45–1.63 | 1.89–2.48 × 10−11 | - | - | 23.34–34.04 | 42.79–72.08 | [100] | |
Tilapia skin/plai essential oils | - | 90.25–91.11 | −3.02–(−1.98) | 5.39–11.62 | 0.00–2.39 | 14.63–88.23 | 1.49–2.17 | 2.45–2.91 × 10−11 | - | - | 17.20–32.06 | 44.96–74.68 | [100] | |
Fish skin/ Ziziphora clinopodioides essential oil | 0.06 | 87.26 | −1.58 | 13.22 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | [80] | |
Fish skin/grape seed extract | 0.06 | 55.12 | 16.77 | 12.57 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | [80] | |
Cold water fish skin/ haskap berries extract | 0.05 | 75.55–90.35 | 1.32–9.09 | −4.47–(−1.48) | - | - | - | 5.96–7.14 × 10−11 | - | - | 46.70–51.50 | 2.87–3.69 | [50] | |
Tilapia skin/bergamot essential oil | - | - | - | - | 0.00–19.34 | 40.34–74.71 | 4.28–4.45 | 3.15–3.22 × 10−11 | - | - | - | - | [101] | |
Tilapia skin/kaffir lime essential oil | - | - | - | - | 0.00–23.51 | 47.52–68.32 | 2.08–2.09 | 2.95–3.38 x 10−11 | - | - | - | - | [101] | |
Tilapia skin/lemon essential oil | - | - | - | - | 0.00–22.26 | 42.35–66.58 | 5.31–5.46 | 2.81–2.85 × 10−11 | - | - | - | - | [101] | |
Tilapia skin/lime essential oil | - | - | - | - | 0.00–26.01 | 49.25–69.37 | 5.46–5.66 | 2.91–3.37 × 10−11 | - | - | - | - | [101] | |
Silver carp skin/green tea extract | - | - | - | - | 0.01–0.09 | 6.20–77.80 | 4.09–4.23 | - | - | - | - | - | [102] | |
Tuna skin/ Soloyo Grande murta leaves extract | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 7.97 × 10−13 | - | - | - | - | [103] | |
Tuna skin/ Soloyo Grande murta leaves | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 5.08 × 10−13 | - | - | - | - | [103] | |
Cold water fish skin/ Origanum vulgare L. essential oil | 0.07–0.09 | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1.35–1.90 × 10−10 | - | - | 3.28–6.72 | 87.20–151.82 | [78] | |
Fish skin/ peppermint essential oils | 0.12–0.13 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | [49] | |
Fish skin/ citronella essential oils | 0.12–0.13 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | [49] | |
Tilapia skin/25,50,75 and 100% palm oil | 0.06–0.12 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 117.77–123.52 | - | - | - | [81] | |
Tilapia skin/basil | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 74.83–77.92 | - | - | - | [104] | |
Tilapia skin/citronella | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 7.58–83.08 | - | - | - | [104] | |
Golden carp skin/ palm oil | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 107.60 | - | - | - | [105] | |
Golden carp skin/ squalene rich fraction from shark liver | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 110.08–123.79 | - | - | - | [105] | |
Tilapia skin/basil essential oil | 0.06–0.07 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 14.11–14.66 | 94.20–127.16 | [106] | |
Tilapia skin/palm oil | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 11.95–21.81 | 104.95–143.19 | [106] | |
Silver carp skin/cinnamon essential oil | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | [85] | |
Carp skin/furcellaran | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 68.29 | [107] | |
Carp skin/furcellaran/rosemary extract | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 69.63–75.71 | [107] | |
Fish bone gelatin/chitosan/tapioca flour | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 8.48–99.84 | - | - | [108] | |
Grey triggerfish skin/blood orange peel pectin | 0.10 | - | - | - | 0.01–0.70 | 12.68–95.70 | 1.12–1.57 | 1.54 × 10−10 | - | - | - | - | [79] | |
Marine skin | Tilapia skin | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | [109] |
Tilapia skin | - | 90.32 | −1.52 | 1.68 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | [99] | |
Tilapia skin | - | 90.57 | −1.58 | 2.15 | 0.01–40.73 | - | 1.20 | - | - | - | 43.62 | - | [100] | |
Cold fish skin | - | 90.52 | −1.30 | 2.81 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | [98] | |
Fish skin | 0.05 | 91.42 | −2.51 | 15.88 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | [80] | |
Cold water fish skin | 0.05 | 94.25 | −0.80 | −1.68 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | [50] | |
Silver carp skin | - | - | - | - | - | 74.33–89.58 | 0.05 | - | - | - | - | - | [110] | |
Silver carp skin | - | - | - | - | 0.04–13.80 | 58.70–85.40 | 2.86 | - | - | - | - | - | [102] | |
Fish skin | - | - | - | - | 0.01–26.57 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | [93] | |
Big-eye snapper skin | - | - | - | - | - | 69.30–84.80 | - | - | 53.14–96.42 | - | - | - | [3] | |
Brownstripe red snapper skin | - | - | - | - | - | 73.20–85.10 | - | - | 59.89–100.28 | - | - | - | [3] | |
Tilapia skin | - | - | - | - | - | 79.94–88.43 | 2.14–2.15 | - | - | - | - | - | [101] | |
Tuna skin | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 6.0 × 10−13 | - | - | - | - | [103]) | |
Cold water fish skin | 0.06 | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1.99 × 10−10 | - | - | 10.57 | 44.71 | [78] | |
Tilapia skin | 0.05 | - | - | - | - | - | - | 2.54 × 10−11 | 117.43 | - | - | 44.09 | [81] | |
Giant catfish skin | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 76.50 | - | - | - | [111] | |
Tilapia skin | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 76.92 | - | - | - | [104] | |
Golden carp skin | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 124.45 | - | - | - | [105] | |
Warm-water Tilapia skin | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | [25] | |
Cold water fish skin | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 76.73 | [112] | |
Fish skin | 0.12 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | [49] | |
Silver carp skin | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 29.03 | - | [85] | |
Cold water fish skin | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 2.96 | [50] | |
Grey triggerfish skin | 0.08 | - | - | - | 0.01 | 28.36–90.50 | 1.09 | 2.05 × 10−10 | - | - | 6.23 | 10.47 | [79] |
Gelatin | Physical Properties | Mechanical Properties | References | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Thickness (mm) | Color | Light Transmission (nm) | Light Transparency (%) | Water Vapor Transmission Rate (g/m s Pa) | Thermal | Biodegradation Rate (%) | Tensile Strength (MPa) | Elongation at Break (EAB) (%) | ||||||
L* | a* | b* | 200–280 | 350–800 | Tm/Tmax (°C) | |||||||||
Poultry composite film | Chicken feet gelatin/25% glycerol | 0.06 | 90.77 | −1.30 | 3.01 | - | 72.48–87.58 | 1.08 | 2.04 × 10−11 | - | - | 44.86 | 15.99 | [86] |
Chicken feet gelatin/35% glycerol | 0.06 | 91.29 | −1.40 | 3.18 | - | 66.75–85.62 | 1.10 | 2.14 × 10−11 | - | - | 34.20 | 33.30 | [86] | |
Chicken feet gelatin/sugarcane bagasse | 0.07–0.09 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | [86] | |
Chicken skin gelatin /CMC | - | - | - | - | 2.07–4.00 | 0.59–1.08 | 2.92 | - | 126.93 | - | 5.53 | 310 | [66] | |
Chicken skin/rice flour | - | - | - | - | 0.06–3.89 | 15.29–50.96 | 2.45–3.06 | 6.83 × 10−10–1.39 × 10−9 | 1st peak: 49.81–51.48 2nd peak: 124.97–129.25 | - | 2.08–2.91 | 58.45–79.31 | [8] | |
Chicken skin/5–20% glycerol | - | - | - | - | 0.02–4.29 | 40.50–78.90 | 0.81–3.97 | 4.86–6.67 × 10−12 | - | - | 1.75–3.64 | 106.43–148.33 | [64] | |
Chicken skin/CMC/Centella asiatica | - | - | - | - | 0.00–0.02 | 0.03–9.24 | 0.71–0.86 | 1.11–1.13 × 10−4 | 130.11–131.31 | - | 4.50–5.00 × 10−2 | 271.17–281.00 | [16] | |
Chicken skin/CMC | - | - | - | - | 0.00–0.42 | 4.07–7.43 | 0.82 | 1.03 × 10−4 | 124.38 | - | 3.00 × 10−2 | 223.05 | [16] | |
Poultry skin | Chicken skin | - | - | - | - | 2.59–2.93 | 3.98–11.98 | - | - | 134.22 | - | 0.98 | 561 | [66] |
Chicken skin | - | - | - | - | 0.16–5.89 | 41.86–51.97 | 1.94 | 5.94 × 10−10 | 49.51 | - | 1.54 | 48.33 | [8] | |
Chicken skin | - | - | - | - | 0.03–4.48 | 61.77–80.63 | 0.77 | 4.17 × 10−12 | - | - | 33.66 | 3.87 | [64] | |
Chicken skin | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 76.26 | - | - | - | [94] |
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Said, N.S.; Sarbon, N.M. Physical and Mechanical Characteristics of Gelatin-Based Films as a Potential Food Packaging Material: A Review. Membranes 2022, 12, 442. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes12050442
Said NS, Sarbon NM. Physical and Mechanical Characteristics of Gelatin-Based Films as a Potential Food Packaging Material: A Review. Membranes. 2022; 12(5):442. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes12050442
Chicago/Turabian StyleSaid, Nurul Saadah, and Norizah Mhd Sarbon. 2022. "Physical and Mechanical Characteristics of Gelatin-Based Films as a Potential Food Packaging Material: A Review" Membranes 12, no. 5: 442. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes12050442