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Review

Marine Nature Reserve: The Starting Point of Marine Ecological Environment Protection in China?

by
Quansheng Wang
1,
Guoqing Han
1 and
Qi Zhang
2,*
1
Law School, Shandong University, Weihai 264209, China
2
School of Physical Education, Shandong University, Weihai 264209, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2025, 13(1), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse13010129
Submission received: 20 November 2024 / Revised: 20 December 2024 / Accepted: 8 January 2025 / Published: 13 January 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Marine Ecology)
Browse Figures
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Abstract

:
A marine nature reserve is an area designated by law for the special protection and management of sea areas, coasts, estuarine wetlands, islands, and other sea areas needing special protection, including objects of exceptional conservation value. The purpose of these reserves is to protect the natural environment and natural resources of the sea. The construction of China’s marine protected areas can be traced back to establishing the Snake Island Nature Reserve in 1963. Over the past six decades, China has established a network of marine protected areas, including marine nature reserves and marine specially protected areas (including marine parks), which have played a pivotal role in safeguarding the marine environment and biodiversity, promoting the integration of land and sea, and defending the country’s maritime rights and interests. Nevertheless, the construction of China’s marine nature reserves is a challenge to solve. It is imperative to further advance the construction and development of China’s marine nature reserves by enhancing the spatial planning of marine nature areas, streamlining the management system, and delineating the rights and interests associated with using sea areas.

1. Introduction

The ocean covers 71% of the Earth’s surface area and is crucial for human survival and development. Oceans offer vast resources, such as marine organisms, minerals, oil, and gas, essential for global economic growth [1]. Protecting the marine ecological environment and ensuring the sustainable use of marine resources for human well-being is imperative. Establishing marine nature reserves is the most cost-effective and efficient approach to safeguarding the marine natural environment, resources, and biodiversity. This is a crucial element in the sustainable development of the social economy, and it is attracting the attention of a growing number of stakeholders [2,3]. In China, a densely populated country experiencing rapid economic growth and expanding resource development, establishing and managing multiple marine nature reserves is crucial and pressing.
Marine nature reserves are established to protect the marine natural environment and resources. Sea areas, coasts, estuarine wetlands, islands, and other areas with exceptional conservation value, including protected objects, are designated for special protection according to the law [4,5]. These reserves promote the reproduction, recovery, and sustainable development of renewable resources, create favorable conditions for species to inhabit, survive, and evolve, effectively safeguard marine biodiversity scarce and endangered species, and preserve the value of non-renewable resources [6]. All of these aim to achieve the sustainable utilization of marine resources for human well-being.
China is a large maritime country with approximately 3 million square kilometers of maritime areas under its jurisdiction [7]. The implementation of marine protected areas can be traced back to 1963 when the Snake Island Nature Reserve was designated in the Bohai Sea. Large-scale construction began after the State Oceanic Administration formulated the Outline for the Establishment of Marine Nature Reserves at the end of 1988. In 1990, the State Council approved the establishment of Changli Gold Coast, Shankou Mangrove Ecology, Dazhou Island Marine Ecology, Sanya Coral Reef, and the South China Sea. There are five national marine nature reserves, such as the Ji Islands [8]. After more than 60 years of development, China has established a network of marine protected areas represented by marine nature reserves and particular marine protected areas (including marine parks). This network has played a crucial role in protecting the marine ecological environment and biodiversity, promoting the overall planning of land and sea, and safeguarding national marine rights and interests.
Based on the assessment of the effectiveness of marine nature reserves in China, this paper examines the problems and deficiencies in the construction and development of marine nature reserves in China; furthermore, the basic ideas and measures for the construction and development of marine nature reserves in China are put forward.

2. Literature Review

The concept of marine nature reserves was first proposed at the World Congress of National Parks in 1962 [9]. However, it received more extensive attention only at the end of the 20th century, especially in the last two decades. Countries around the world have established various forms of marine protected areas.
Why should we establish marine nature reserves? Many countries have already established marine nature reserves [10,11]. The consensus is that the significance of establishing marine nature reserves is to maintain the original marine natural environment, preserve the productivity of marine ecosystems, and conserve critical ecological processes and genetic resources. At the 17th Plenary Session of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) held in Costa Rica in 1988, the objective of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) was defined as “through the creation, the objective was to establish a global representative system of marine protected areas, which would manage human activities that use and affect the marine environment following the strategic principles of world conservation.” This would ensure long-term protection, restoration, wise use, understanding, and enjoyment of the world’s marine heritage [12]. Some scholars concluded that establishing marine nature conservation is strategically significant in protecting marine biodiversity. Specifically, there are the following four aspects [13]: (1) Marine nature reserves can not only wholly preserve a part of the natural “background” of the representative marine ecosystem for human beings, but, as a living natural museum, they can also provide a reference standard for evaluating the results of human activities in the future. (2) Marine nature reserves are natural repositories of wildlife species. They can provide suitable conditions for many species to inhabit, survive, and maintain the evolutionary process, effectively protecting the diversity of biological species. In particular, rare and endangered species should be protected so humans can use them sustainably. (3) Marine nature reserves can reduce or eliminate the adverse effects on human beings. It is possible to restore and develop the typical marine environment, which has been disturbed by human beings but not thoughtfully, in order to improve the marine environment and maintain the relative ecological balance. (4) Marine nature reserves can protect natural and historical sites and scenic spots. It is of great significance to promote the development of academic research, cultural education, and tourism.
What are the types of marine nature reserves? The criteria and methods for classifying marine nature reserves are identical to those for terrestrial nature reserves. They are divided according to the nature, tasks, objectives, and management methods of protected areas and in line with practical and transparent principles. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) classifies the world’s diverse nature reserves into ten categories [14]. They are (1) the absolute nature reserve and the national park; (2) the nature monument reserve/nature landscape reserve; (3) the natural landscape reserve; (4) the natural landscape and reserve and the natural landscape reserve; (5) controlled nature reserves and stratobiological reserves; (6) protected landscapes and seascapes; (7) natural resource reserves; (8) human reserve/natural biological reserve; (9) diversified management area and source management reserve; (10) biosphere reserve and world natural heritage reserve. According to the Principles for Classification of Types and Grades of Marine Nature Reserves (see Table 1 below), marine protected areas are divided into three categories and twelve types [15]: marine nature reserves and particular marine protected areas. Marine nature reserves refer to the protection of marine natural environments and resources. A particular coast area, estuary, island, wetland, or sea area, including the protected object, shall be divided according to law—areas for special protection and management. Specially protected marine areas refer to the unique geographical conditions, ecosystems, living and non-living resources, and the unique requirements for utilizing marine resources—areas requiring effective protection measures and scientific utilization methods for exceptional management. Its ecotourism function should be considered to protect marine ecological, historical, and cultural values [16]. Marine parks are established in exceptional marine ecological landscapes, historical and cultural relics, unique geological and geomorphological landscapes, and surrounding sea areas [17]. The fundamental purpose and objective of protecting marine areas is the sustainable use of marine resources [18]. What is protected is the ability of marine resources and sustainable development of the environment (see Table 2).
With regard to the study of marine nature reserves, there are two aspects of the current hot issues of concern:
The first aspect is about the protected objects and scope of marine nature reserves. Whether in academic research or practice, the protected objects of marine nature reserves are classified into the following three categories [19,20]: (1) Marine biological species: mainly marine rare and endangered species and marine economic biological species [21]. Turtles, seals, fur seals, and red corals are all rare species in the ocean. In addition, ancient species such as amphioxus, lanceolate, Lingulida, and so on are also left behind [22]. Protecting these marine organisms is an essential task of marine nature reserves. China’s Guangxi Dugong Nature Reserve and Xiamen White Dolphin Nature Reserve belong to this category [23]. (2) Marine ecosystems, including estuarine ecosystems, intertidal ecosystems, salt marsh ecosystems, mangrove ecosystems, bay ecosystems, seagrass beds, ecosystems, coral reef ecosystems, island ecosystems, etc. [24]. Because of the high population density in coastal areas, human activities are frequent, which has caused considerable damage to the marine ecosystem. Globally, coral reefs and mangroves are the most severely damaged [25]. In addition, other marine ecosystems, such as estuaries, bays, islands, and marshes, have also been damaged [26]. The Zhanjiang Mangrove Nature Reserve in Guangdong, China, is dedicated to protecting mangrove ecosystems. The Sanya Coral Reef Reserve in Hainan protects coral reefs and their ecosystems [27]. (3) Marine natural historical relics, including marine geological relics, paleontological relics, natural landscapes, etc. The task of marine nature reserves is to have ornamental and research value. Representative and typical landscapes and relics are protected [5]. The Ancient Coastal and Wetland Nature Reserve in Tianjin, China, established in 1992, comprises shell dikes, oyster beaches, ancient coastal relics, and coastal wetlands of the protected objects [28].
The second aspect is on the effectiveness of the management of marine nature reserves. The evaluation of the effectiveness of the management of marine nature reserves has long been a hot topic in the field of global nature conservation [29,30]. The research aims to identify management problems and factors that threaten management and suggest improvements. By identifying management behaviors that contribute to achieving management goals, improving planning, enhancing management accountability, allocating resources more effectively, and providing more information to stakeholders, policymakers can enhance their responsiveness to management issues and strengthen the status of protected areas in the public eye. This ensures that the value of establishing protected areas is maintained and potentially enhanced [31]. These studies encompass the ecological evaluation criteria of marine nature reserves, evaluation indices and systems for marine biodiversity, evaluation methodologies, etc. [32,33,34]. Additionally, there have been advancements in the study of legal regulations for marine nature conservation in various countries, the relationship between marine nature reserves and communities, compensation for damage to marine nature reserves, spatial planning, ecotourism development of marine nature reserves, etc. [35,36,37].

3. Achievements in the Construction of Marine Nature Reserves in China

Since China first established the Snake Island Marine Nature Reserve in Bohai Bay in 1963, the establishment of nature reserves in China over the past 60 years has produced significant results.

3.1. The Legal and Regulatory Framework for Marine Nature Reserves Has Been Established

The system of laws and regulations plays a guiding, promoting, and guaranteeing role in establishing marine nature reserves. Relevant laws and regulations for marine nature reserves have been developed. China has formulated pertinent laws and regulations and implemented a system for marine nature reserves (see Table 3).
From a legal perspective, China still needs to establish specific legislation protecting marine nature reserves in the People’s Republic of China. Legislation concerning marine nature reserves includes administrative regulations, provincial–local regulations, and district-level regulations (see Table 4).

3.2. The List of Marine Nature Reserves Is Excellent

In 1988, the State Oceanic Administration convened the National Symposium on the Work of Marine Nature Reserves and formulated the Outline for the Establishment of Marine Nature Reserves. In 1990, Changli Gold Coast, Shankou Mangrove Ecology, Dazhou Island Swiftlet Marine Ecology, and Sanya Coral Reef were established with the approval of the State Council, along with five national marine nature reserves in the Nanji Islands [38]. The protected areas include coastal wetlands, marine habitats, natural and historical sites or landforms, important islands, mangroves, birds, other marine ecosystems, and valuable resources.
By the end of 2023, China had established 271 marine nature reserves at all levels, involving 11 coastal provinces. The total area reaches 124,000 square kilometers, including 42 national marine nature reserves (see Figure 1). There are 22 national particular marine protected areas (see Figure 2) and 48 national marine parks (see Figure 3). The protected areas encompass various marine ecosystems such as mangroves, coral reefs, coastal wetlands, bays, and islands, as well as species like Chinese white dolphins, spotted seals, dugongs, green turtles, amphioxus, and other rare and endangered marine species [39].
In addition to the national and provincial marine nature reserves and particular marine protected areas, cities and counties with districts have also established their marine nature reserves and particular marine protected areas. The list of protections is becoming more comprehensive and refined.

3.3. The Relevant Technology and Standard Systems for Marine Nature Reserves Are Gradually Being Established

The State Oceanic Administration promulgated the Measures for the Administration of Marine Nature Reserves on 29 May 1995, which came into effect on the same day. These measures aim to enhance the establishment and management of marine nature reserves by the Regulations of the People’s Republic of China on Nature Reserves.
Principles for the Classification of Types and Levels of Marine Nature Reserves are based on China’s marine natural resources and natural environment characteristics. They protect the marine natural ecological environment, conserving rare and endangered marine species and safeguarding and restoring marine biodiversity. These principles are formulated to enhance the establishment and administration of marine nature reserves.
The State Oceanic Administration promulgated and implemented the Technical Regulations for Monitoring Marine Nature Reserves in April 2002. These regulations stipulate the contents, technical requirements, and methods for monitoring marine nature reserves.
The technical specifications for Marine Nature Reserve Management outline the requirements for investigation and monitoring, environmental protection and restoration, scientific research, publicity and education, public participation, development activities, file management, and other technical specifications related to marine nature reserves.

3.4. The Ecological Impact of Marine Nature Reserves Has Been Significantly Enhanced

China is enhancing the establishment of marine nature reserves, which has significantly impacted the marine ecological environment, marine biodiversity, and marine water quality [40]. Using Hainan Province as a case study, the marine environment within the 18 marine nature reserves in the province has been effectively preserved. The marine ecosystem is in equilibrium, providing efficient protection for typical marine ecosystems like mangroves, coral reefs, and islands. These reserves also safeguard rare marine species, such as white butterfly shellfish, tiger shellfish, and turtles, along with their habitats [41]. The coastal ecosystems of Hainan Province are diverse and abundant, with coral reefs, mangroves, seaweed beds, and lagoon ecosystems being the most prominent. These ecosystems are primarily located in the Xisha, Zhongsha, and Nansha sea areas and extensive areas near the islands, covering a coastline of approximately 400 kilometers. The province boasts 4300 hectares of mangroves, mainly found in estuaries and inner bays at the confluence of salt and fresh water [32]. The mangrove forest area is teeming with biodiversity, including various resources such as birds, mammals, amphibians, reptiles, insects, fish, marine invertebrates, and benthic animals, forming a distinctive mangrove ecology.

4. Challenges and Deficiencies That Need to Be Addressed in the Development of Marine Nature Reserves in China

Although China’s marine nature reserves have achieved some results, there are still some difficulties in their future development. Addressing existing problems and shortcomings is essential.

4.1. The Top-Level Design of the Legal System Needs to Be Strengthened

The laws and regulations governing marine nature reserves serve as the foundation for enhancing the legal management of such reserves. International organizations have convened numerous meetings to urge countries to bolster their legal frameworks for managing marine nature reserves [42]. Countries worldwide view legal measures as a crucial strategic approach to improving the management of marine nature reserves. Significant progress has been made in this regard. Practical experience has shown that utilizing legal mechanisms and improving law enforcement are the most effective strategies for efficiently managing protected areas [43].
There are still obvious problems in China’s top-level design of the legal system of marine nature reserves. Firstly, nature reserves are not explicitly stipulated at the legal level. The lack of laws on protected areas or marine nature reserves only exists in some laws, and the provisions of laws need to be completed, scattered, and unsystematic. At least from the current laws formulated by the National People’s Congress and its Standing Committee, it takes work to provide comprehensive protection for marine nature reserves, relying more on the administrative regulations and local regulations of the State Council. Secondly, although China’s coastal provinces and municipalities have established comprehensive legal and regulatory frameworks about nature reserves, including the Regulations on Nature Reserves in Hainan Province, there are also specific legislative measures aimed at the protection of marine nature reserves. These include the Measures for the Management of Egret Nature Reserve in Dayu Island, Xiamen, and the Guanjing Regulations on the Management of Foreign Large Yellow Croaker Breeding Reserves. However, the overall number must be more significant to form a relatively perfect legal protection network.

4.2. Lack of Spatial Planning for the Establishment of Marine Nature Reserves

The development history of marine nature reserves in China is much older than that of comprehensive territorial spatial planning. Therefore, a unified marine nature reserve system layout must be considered. More systematic planning and the precise positioning of the natural ecological space of the nature reserve are needed. There is also a need for more urban municipal development planning consistent with natural ecological protection [44]. As a result, most nature reserves in China are initiated and constructed by departments. More unified regulations, policies, and standards for the protected area system at the national level must be unified. There is no uniform policy or standard for constructing marine nature reserves locally; although the number is large, it is limited to the establishment. Later, construction and maintenance are out of the question. More importantly, although the coastal provinces and municipalities have strengthened the spatial layout planning of marine nature reserves, they need to clearly define the specific location and scope boundary and form a list of proposed protected areas with detailed information. However, the boundary information for the established nature reserves must still be completed. As a result, the construction of marine nature reserves is in a chaotic state.

4.3. The Management System of Marine Nature Reserves Requires Further Clarification

According to current laws, regulations, and policies in China, the State Oceanic Administration is responsible for planning and constructing marine nature reserves. China implements a management mechanism for marine nature reserves that combines central and local governments while separating administration from business. Operationally, national and local marine administrative departments oversee the work of marine nature reserves in their respective regions. The government restricts the work of specific Environmental Protection Department executive agencies [45]. Managing various types of marine environmental nature reserves falls under the jurisdiction of different government departments, including those overseeing environmental protection, forestry, agriculture, and land management. Even within a single protected area, different departments are responsible for managing various functions such as tourism, pollution control, and public health. Consequently, each department prioritizes its interests, leading to power struggles or the mutual shirking of responsibility.
Due to the need for a transparent management system, clarity may arise in establishing norms and standards for managing marine nature reserves. Various types and levels of management subjects for nature reserves typically develop technical standards for protecting natural resources and managing reserves. Due to different management departments, the management mode can vary for ecosystems of the same type, protection object, and value, resulting in significant management differences. The absence of unified classification standards, grading standards, and construction and management standards for marine nature reserves leads to a lack of standardized classification for such reserves. The natural attributes of the protected area ecosystem still need to be fully acknowledged and respected, significantly impacting the scientific management of protected areas. Different departments have policies and may even compete with or exclude each other to manage protected areas. Consequently, it is challenging to scientifically classify and manage the country’s resources from a macro and comprehensive perspective.

4.4. The Types of Marine Nature Reserves Are Unique and Unevenly Distributed

Two hundred seventy-one marine nature reserves have been established in China, primarily focusing on safeguarding marine and coastal ecosystems such as mangroves, coral reefs, and estuarine wetlands. However, there needs to be more protected areas for wildlife and other non-living resources. This limitation hinders the effectiveness of marine nature reserves in China in conserving marine resources [46]. Moreover, the distribution of marine nature reserves is heavily concentrated in regions like Shandong and Liaoning, with only a few protected areas established in other coastal provinces and cities. This concentration weakens the overall protective impact of the existing marine nature reserves.

4.5. The Ownership of Land and Sea Areas Within the Protected Area Is Unclear

When some marine nature reserves were established, they failed to delimit specific boundaries or define the management ownership of land and sea areas. With the reduction in land and the improved function of sea areas, occupying or changing the status quo of land and sea areas in protected areas is becoming increasingly severe. Some protected areas were demarcated at the time of their establishment. However, due to unresolved use and management rights of land and sea areas within these areas, numerous policies [47] have led to chaotic management, resulting in ongoing contradictions and disputes that are difficult to resolve. The administrative bodies of protected areas find it challenging to prevent departments or collectives with land and sea area usage rights from unreasonably developing and utilizing these areas within the protected zones. This behavior hinders protection efforts and prevents the effective management of protected areas.

4.6. There Is a Significant Lack of Investment in the Construction of Marine Nature Reserves

Over the years, there has been no fixed source of funds for constructing and managing marine nature reserves in China, and most rely on competent authorities to adjust their use. The situation is slightly better except for a few national marine nature reserves, which relevant state departments, coastal provinces, municipalities, and districts can support. The investment in most marine nature reserves is meager, and the funding gap is significant. Due to the continuous flow of seawater, the complex and changeable marine natural environment, and the harsh sea conditions, the construction and management of marine nature reserves are more arduous and complex than terrestrial nature reserves. With the increase in population, the decrease in land, and the improvement of marine development, marine natural protection is becoming more and more arduous. Managers of marine protected areas should have a high level of ideological quality and professional knowledge to implement effective management according to the characteristics of the ocean. At the same time, the reserve also needs to have the corresponding infrastructure; however, due to the severe shortage of construction funds [48], the infrastructure of marine protected areas is weak, and there is a lack of corresponding transportation, communication, scientific research, and other equipment. A few protected areas still need the most basic housing and facilities. Many protected areas have jurisdiction over thousands of hectares of land and sea. Often, due to the lack of communication and transportation (vehicles, ships, etc.) and other equipment, the phenomenon of damage to the object of protection cannot be collected, stopped, and appropriately handled. Insufficient investment in management funds leaves the problems of imperfect management institutions, insufficient personnel, and low quality unsolved for a long time. The coastal areas arrange limited headcount funds for the designated protected areas, which can barely maintain personnel salary payments. However, the cost of daily management, monitoring, scientific research, publicity, and education has no fixed source and can only be maintained with simple care. It cannot perform the multiple functions of the protected area.

5. Future Development Ideas for China’s Marine Nature Reserves

Facing the problems and shortcomings of China’s marine nature reserves, this paper proposes some suggestions and measures to promote the high-quality development of marine nature reserves in China.

5.1. Formulate the Law of the People’s Republic of China on Nature Reserves and Enhance Relevant Supporting Laws and Regulations

Given the absence of top-tier facilities in the nature reserve system at the legal level in China, the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress should promptly draft the Law on Nature Reserves of the People’s Republic of China based on the current state of nature reserve construction. This law will complement the Regulations of the People’s Republic of China on Nature Reserves established by the State Council, consolidating land and marine nature reserves under its authority. This endeavor promotes the legal advancement of nature reserves in China, including marine nature reserves [29].
In addition to formulating the Law of the People’s Republic of China on Nature Reserves at the national legal level, coastal provinces and municipalities should develop regulations on nature reserves based on the specific conditions of their respective areas. Special laws and regulations have created marine nature reserves, particularly protected areas, and national marine parks. Efforts are being made to enhance the development of relevant laws and regulations for marine natural areas.

5.2. Establishment of Comprehensive Management Departments for Marine Nature Reserves from Top to Bottom

According to China’s current multi-sectoral management of marine nature reserves, the State Oceanic Administration under the Ministry of Land and Resources should be the national unified competent department for managing marine nature reserves. The competent marine departments of provinces and municipalities with districts are the competent departments of marine nature reserves. Other departments, such as agriculture, rural areas, traffic safety, forestry, and environmental protection, should be involved in co-management. They should participate in the construction and management of marine nature reserves within the responsibilities of their departments [5]. It is suggested that provinces and municipalities with districts establish a unified, comprehensive management committee for marine nature reserves. Under the unified leadership of the people’s governments of provinces and cities with districts, they are fully responsible for developing and protecting local marine nature reserves.

5.3. Coordinate the Relationship Between the Spatial Planning of Marine Nature Reserves and the Overall Spatial Planning of Governments at All Levels

Territorial spatial planning serves as the roadmap for national spatial development and the spatial framework for sustainable development [49]. It is the basis for various development, conservation, and construction activities. The establishment and oversight of a territorial spatial planning system are crucial. This system consolidates area planning, land use planning, urban and rural planning, and other aspects into a cohesive territorial spatial plan. The goal is to achieve “multi-conformity” and enhance the guiding and regulatory role of territorial spatial planning in different specialized plans. It represents a significant initiative by the Party Central Committee and the State Council. In China, territorial spatial planning has been synchronized with the establishment of marine nature reserves in recent years. In February 2017, the State Council released the Outline of National Land Planning (2016–2030). It issued several opinions from the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China and the State Council on establishing a territorial spatial planning system and overseeing its implementation. In 2022, the Outline of National Land and Space Planning (2021–2035) was officially released and implemented, shaping the “China Program” for sustainable land and space development, conservation, and utilization in China. Provinces, cities, and districts also develop comprehensive spatial plans based on national territorial spatial planning for their respective areas. When creating relevant territorial and spatial plans, all levels of government should coordinate the planning of existing or planned marine nature reserves. They should consider integrating local marine nature reserve plans into local territorial spatial planning. The location and boundaries of various types and levels of marine nature reserves must be delineated to facilitate effective management of marine nature reserve areas.

5.4. Enhance and Expand the Variety of Marine Nature Reserves

Given the unbalanced regional distribution and unreasonable type structure of marine nature reserves in China, it is imperative to promptly establish several projects that can showcase the marine biodiversity of various climatic zones, offshore islands, estuaries, and coastal wetlands, as identified through comprehensive investigation and demonstration [50]. The marine ecology of diverse ecosystems and species types can also mirror the features of tropical coral reefs and mangrove communities. Natural protected areas and marine nature reserves hold particular importance for preserving natural landscapes and historical sites.

5.5. Clarify the Ownership of Land and Sea Areas Within Marine Nature Reserves

In China, the demand for resources is increasing due to population growth and economic development. Economic progress heavily depends on the extensive exploitation and utilization of natural resources. Short-term socialized behavior in managing the relationship between economic development and resource and environmental protection is expected to persist for a long time. The comprehensive management departments of marine nature reserves and the land and marine administrative departments at all levels should thoroughly study the ownership of land and sea areas in protected regions and promptly establish management laws and regulations to address relevant issues legally. Governments at all levels should integrate the use of land and sea areas in marine nature reserves into the government’s overall land and sea area use planning [51]. Furthermore, when evaluating and approving new marine nature reserves, governments at all levels should carefully consider the demarcation of protected areas and the ownership of land and sea areas. Resolving these issues appropriately before approving construction can prevent potential future problems.

5.6. Broaden Funding Channels and Increase Funding for Marine Nature Reserves

Establishing marine nature reserves is a public welfare initiative, and generating economic returns from investments is challenging [52]. According to the state investment system and the Regulations of the People’s Republic of China on Nature Reserves, the development of marine nature reserves primarily focuses on coastal regions, with local governments encouraged to boost investments in marine nature reserves. The national finance department should also consider increasing investments to support the establishment of national marine nature reserves. Governments at all levels should integrate the construction and management of marine protected areas into national economic and social development plans. The necessary funds should be allocated to the annual capital construction plan and financial budget. The administrative departments overseeing established marine nature reserves should continue to enhance their investments in the reserves under their jurisdiction. Simultaneously, there should be a focus on strengthening supervision and management to maximize the benefits of limited investments. State support is essential for regions distant from urban centers, economically underdeveloped, and heavily reliant on extensive marine activities. Leaders at all levels should prioritize establishing and managing marine nature reserves by increasing investments appropriately. This approach is more effective than spending significant amounts on reconstruction post-destruction. Furthermore, encouraging voluntary donations from society, seeking foreign funds, and enhancing the self-sufficiency of marine protected areas through scientific methods are also viable strategies. Diversifying funding sources through various channels is crucial to ensure the smooth operation of marine nature reserves.

5.7. Engage in International Cooperation and Exchange of Marine Nature Reserves

The establishment of marine nature reserves holds international significance. Is this practice the international standard? The third part of the Outline indicates that many biological resources are shared, and safeguarding some biological resources often extends beyond a single country’s jurisdiction. Another country’s development activities may impact one country’s biological resources, necessitating adequate protection through international collaboration [53]. International organizations such as the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, UNESCO, the United Nations Environment Program, and the World Wildlife Fund provide valuable platforms for cooperation and information exchange. Apart from international organizations, bilateral cooperation at regional and national levels is also essential. For instance, a notable example is the collaborative research on the mangrove ecosystem in the Jiulong River Estuary by the Third Institute of Oceanography of the State Oceanic Administration of China and the University of York in the United Kingdom. Initially, collaboration can be pursued with United Nations regional institutions. Simultaneously, partnerships should be established with various countries and regions based on the conservation target. For instance, mangroves can collaborate with Southeast Asian countries, coral reefs with Australia, marshlands with the United States, etc.

6. Conclusions

Marine nature reserves protect less disturbed marine habitats and ecosystems close to their natural state and significantly restore highly disturbed and degraded natural habitats and ecosystems. This is achieved by inhibiting degradation by excluding direct interference in protected habitats or ecosystems, such as overfishing and habitat destruction. Furthermore, nature reserves protect all species and their physical environment in the protected areas, facilitating the restoration of natural relationships between species and organisms and their environment. Gradually, degraded habitats and ecosystems are restored to a more natural state. Numerous studies demonstrate that establishing marine nature reserves can notably enhance the biomass, species diversity, biological density, and individual size of marine organisms in the reserves, making them more productive and fertile.
The establishment and administration of marine nature reserves in China represent a public welfare initiative with profound significance for the present and the future. Let us all show care and support for this cause and collaborate. China’s marine protected areas will undoubtedly enhance the efforts of socialist modernization.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Q.W. and Q.Z.; methodology, G.H.; software, G.H.; validation, Q.W., G.H. and Q.Z.; formal analysis, G.H.; investigation, G.H.; resources, Q.Z.; data curation, G.H.; writing—original draft preparation, G.H.; writing—review and editing, Q.Z.; visualization, Q.Z.; supervision, Q.W.; project administration, Q.Z.; funding acquisition, Q.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by the General Project of Social Science Planning and Research in Shandong Province (24CFXJ06).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Statistics of the national marine nature reserves in China.
Figure 1. Statistics of the national marine nature reserves in China.
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Figure 2. List of special marine protected areas in China.
Figure 2. List of special marine protected areas in China.
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Figure 3. List of national ocean parks in China.
Figure 3. List of national ocean parks in China.
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Table 1. Types of marine nature reserves in China.
Table 1. Types of marine nature reserves in China.
ClassificationType
Marine and coastal natural ecosystemsEstuarine ecosystems
Intertidal ecosystems
Salt marsh (brackish, semi-saline) ecosystems
Mangrove ecosystems
Gulf ecosystems
Seagrass ecosystems
Coral reef ecosystems
Upwelling ecosystems
Continental shelf ecosystems
Island ecosystems
Marine speciesMarine rare and endangered species
Marine economic and biological species
Marine natural heritage and non-living resourcesMarine geological remains
Marine paleontological remains
Marine natural landscapes
Marine living resources
Table 2. Criteria for classification and grading of marine specially protected areas in China.
Table 2. Criteria for classification and grading of marine specially protected areas in China.
Types of Marine Specially Protected AreasMarine Specially Protected Area Level
National LevelLocal Level
Marine Special Geographic Conditions Protected AreasIslands with a unique role in the determination of China’s territorial sea, internal waters and exclusive economic zone; areas of strategic importance and maritime rights and interestsVulnerable islands; special areas for maintaining stable hydrodynamic conditions of the sea
Marine Ecological Protection AreaDistribution areas of rare and endangered species; typical ecosystems such as coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass beds, coastal wetlands, etc., are concentratedAreas of high marine biodiversity; marine ecologically sensitive or vulnerable areas
Ocean ParkDistribution areas of important historical sites, unique geological features and special marine landscapesEcological restoration and construction areas with certain aesthetic values and ecological functions
Marine Resources Protected AreasDistribution areas of major national strategic resources, such as oil and gas, new energy sources, rare metals, etc.Important fishery resources, tourism resources and marine mineral distribution areas
Table 3. The legal system of marine nature reserves in China and its relevant contents.
Table 3. The legal system of marine nature reserves in China and its relevant contents.
No.Name of LawFormulation SubjectImplementation TimeMain Content
1Criminal Law of the PRCThe NPC Standing Committee1 March 2024Article 342 establishes the offense of destruction of nature reserves.
2Marine Environmental Protection Law of the People’s Republic of ChinaThe NPC Standing Committee1 January 2024Article 34 stipulates that the State Council and local people’s governments shall establish marine nature reserves of different levels and types.
3Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of WildlifeThe NPC Standing Committee1 May 2023Article 12 stipulates that the wildlife protection list system and the protection, restoration, and improvement of wildlife’s living environment shall be clarified.
4Wetland Protection Law of the People’s Republic of ChinaThe NPC Standing Committee1 June 2022Article 24 stipulates that relevant important wetlands shall be included in the scope of nature reserves.
5Law of the People’s Republic of China on Urban and Rural PlanningThe NPC Standing Committee23 April 2019Article 35 stipulates that land use for nature reserves determined by urban and rural planning shall be changed with authorization.
6Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Prevention and Control of Environmental Pollution by Solid WasteThe NPC Standing Committee7 November 2016Article 22 stipulates that the construction of facilities and sites for centralized storage and treatment of industrial solid waste and landfills of domestic waste is prohibited in national and provincial nature reserves.
7Environmental Protection Law of the People’s Republic of ChinaThe NPC Standing Committee1 January 2015Article 2 stipulates that the environment of nature reserves shall be included in the scope of the Environmental Protection Law for protection.
8Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Protection of Sea IslandsThe NPC Standing Committee1 March 2010Article 16 stipulates that the islands’ natural resources, natural landscapes, and historical and cultural relics shall be explicitly protected, and the coastline of islands in nature reserves shall be prohibited from being altered to protect the islands’ ecology.
9Law of the People’s Republic of China on Earthquake Prevention and Disaster MitigationThe NPC Standing Committee1 May 2009Article 61 stipulates that the implementation of transitional resettlement should protect nature reserves.
10Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Prevention and Control of Atmospheric PollutionThe NPC Standing Committee1 September 2000Article 16 stipulates that industrial production facilities that pollute the environment shall not be built in nature reserves.
11Mineral Resources Law of the People’s Republic of ChinaThe NPC Standing Committee1 January 1997Article 20 stipulates that mineral resources shall not be exploited within the scope of national and provincial nature reserves.
Table 4. Statistics of China’s current effective laws and regulations on special marine nature reserves.
Table 4. Statistics of China’s current effective laws and regulations on special marine nature reserves.
No.Name of RegulationFormulation SubjectImplementation TimeThe Nature of Regulations
1Regulations of the People’s Republic of China on Nature ReservesThe State Department17 October 2017Administrative regulations
2Measures for the Administration of Forest and Wildlife Nature ReservesThe State Department6 July 1985Administrative regulations
3Measures for the Administration of Fuzhou Minjiang River Estuary Wetland Nature ReserveStanding Committee of Fuzhou Municipal People’s Congress1 January 2023Local laws and regulations of cities with districts
4Regulations of Zhoushan Municipality on the Administration of National Special Marine Protected AreasStanding Committee of Zhoushan Municipal People’s Congress1 July 2022Local laws and regulations of cities with districts
5Regulations of Hainan Province on Nature ReservesHainan Provincial People’s Congress Standing Committee31 May 2022Provincial–local laws and regulations
6Regulations of Jilin Province on the Administration of Xianghai National Nature ReserveStanding Committee of Jilin Provincial People’s Congress30 November 2018Provincial–local laws and regulations
7Regulations of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region on the Administration of Forest and Wildlife Nature ReservesStanding Committee of the People’s Congress of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region30 September 2018Provincial–local laws and regulations
8Regulations of Dandong on the Administration of Yalu River Estuary Wetland National Nature ReserveStanding Committee of Dandong Municipal People’s Congress1 March 2018Local laws and regulations of cities with districts
9Measures of Shandong Province on the Administration of Forest and Wildlife Nature ReservesStanding Committee of Shandong Provincial People’s Congress23 January 2018Provincial–local laws and regulations
10Regulations of Ningbo Municipality on Jiushan Islands Marine Ecological Nature ReserveStanding Committee of Ningbo Municipal People’s Congress16 December 2017Local laws and regulations of cities with districts
11Regulations on Shandong Yellow River Delta National Nature ReserveDongying Municipal People’s Congress Standing Committee5 December 2017Local laws and regulations of cities with districts
12Regulations of Zhejiang Province on the Administration of Nanji Archipelago National Marine Nature ReserveStanding Committee of Zhejiang Provincial People’s Congress30 November 2017Provincial–local laws and regulations
13Regulations of Fujian Province on the Administration of Forest and Wildlife Nature ReservesStanding Committee of Fujian Provincial People’s Congress24 November 2017Provincial–local laws and regulations
14Measures for the Administration of Xiamen Dayu Island Egret Nature ReserveStanding Committee of Xiamen Municipal People’s Congress3 November 2017Local laws and regulations of cities with districts
15Provisions of Fujian Province on the Administration of Changle Sea Mussel Resources Proliferation ReserveStanding Committee of Fujian Provincial People’s Congress1 May 2014Provincial–local laws and regulations
16Regulations on the Administration of Guanjingyang Large Yellow Croaker Breeding ReserveStanding Committee of Fujian Provincial People’s Congress24 March 2011Provincial–local laws and regulations
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Wang, Q.; Han, G.; Zhang, Q. Marine Nature Reserve: The Starting Point of Marine Ecological Environment Protection in China? J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2025, 13, 129. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse13010129

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Wang Q, Han G, Zhang Q. Marine Nature Reserve: The Starting Point of Marine Ecological Environment Protection in China? Journal of Marine Science and Engineering. 2025; 13(1):129. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse13010129

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Wang, Quansheng, Guoqing Han, and Qi Zhang. 2025. "Marine Nature Reserve: The Starting Point of Marine Ecological Environment Protection in China?" Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 13, no. 1: 129. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse13010129

APA Style

Wang, Q., Han, G., & Zhang, Q. (2025). Marine Nature Reserve: The Starting Point of Marine Ecological Environment Protection in China? Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 13(1), 129. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse13010129

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