Dynamics of Amaranthus in Urban and Rural Value Chains in Communities of KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa

Abstract

Sub-Saharan Africa falls among the developing countries with poor standards of living contributing to the high prevalence of malnutrition. Interventions have been conducted, but malnutrition continues to linger, with devastating impacts on vulnerable groups. In Africa, 90% of its children cannot access the minimum balanced diet. Also, 60% of the people in this region do not access daily meals for dietary needs. Traditional vegetables like Amaranthus are identified to have great potential to combat malnutrition; however, Amaranthus is underutilized due to limited awareness of its potential and poor post-harvest practices along the value chain. This study evaluates the dynamics of Amaranthus along its value chain in the urban and rural communities of KwaZulu-Natal. South Africa. Mixed-design research and a purposive convenient random sampling approach were explored. Semi-structured questionnaires were used to collect data for the survey, and this was strengthened by a series of five n = (30) face-to-face interviews with six key informants from urban and rural formal and informal markets. The findings revealed that eleven species of Amaranthus have been identified in South Africa such as Amaranthus spinosus varieties, including A. dubius, and A. cruentus, which are the most sold and consumed, mostly being sold by street vendors. Thus, poor perception and attitudes along with limited access to Amaranthus in some upper-class markets contribute to underutilization. Promoting Amaranthus at all levels of markets might create better awareness of its utilization.

1. Introduction

Efforts to address malnutrition in many developing countries, especially Sub-Saharan African countries, have long been investigated [1,2]. Despite many interventions to combat malnutrition challenges, micronutrient deficiency still exists, especially across regions of underdeveloped countries [3,4]. The prevalence of malnutrition is notably higher in Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, where lower standards of living have significantly affected the most vulnerable populations [5]. The vulnerable populations have been identified to encompass the elderly, adolescents, women of reproductive age, and young children living in rural areas and informal urban settlements [3,6]. Solving malnutrition has been of great concern to scholars; therefore, the increased growth rate of the global population calls for a commensurate increase in production, not just in having a keen interest in the production of foods, but also in the exploration of nutrient-dense species of indigenous food crops.

Across the globe, nutrient-dense species of indigenous vegetables, including Amaranthus, have been considered underutilized crops even though they have been identified as having great potential for optimizing the food and nutrition security of vulnerable populations [4,5,6,7,8]. The specific objectives of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 2, “Zero Hunger” are to achieve food security, improved nutrition security, and sustainable agriculture by 2030. African continent, where South Africa is located, is blessed with nutrient-dense food.

Indigenous varieties of food crops, including diverse species of Amaranthus that are highly nutritious, have vital components of essential vitamins and minerals and have been identified as promoting well-being elements because of their potential to improve the nutrition security of consumers [6,7,8]. Amaranthus is also loaded with nutraceuticals and bioactive compounds with natural protective potential against chronic ailments. Furthermore, it is a vital ingredient in soups, dips, or sauces that can accompany most staple foods (carbohydrates/starchy food sources) [9]. The leaves are cooked with other vegetables, which accompany the main dish or can be eaten alone as a potherb in sauces or soups. The grains are used as enhancers of staple cereal foods; the plant can also be used for livestock feeds, and for astatic value [10]. In traditional medicine, the leaves and roots are boiled and utilized as anti-diabetic, antipyretic, anti-snake-venom, laxative, diuretic, antileprotic, and anti-gonorrheal agents, in addition, to use as an expectorant to relieve difficulty breathing in acute bronchitis [11,12]. Amaranthus also has anti-inflammatory medicinal properties that may improve the overall immunity of the human system [6,11]. However, despite the huge nutritional content of Amaranthus, it is one of the most underutilized crops, and it has received little attention in research regarding the most sold variety in the informal and formal markets along their value chain [6]. Underutilized crops such as Amaranthus possess significant potential for commercialization. This could enhance industrial and household utilization, addressing food and nutritional insecurity in malnourished communities.

For instance, the Amaranthus (A.) spinous variety has played a vital role in sustaining the food security of people, as it is a vegetable that is often harvested from the wild and fallow lands, and it belongs to the cheapest indigenous vegetables compared to other varieties of traditional and exotic vegetables [6]. Indigenous leafy vegetables including Amaranthus can improve the food and nutrition security of rural communities that are challenged in accessing nutritious foods; hence, they can help alleviate malnutrition in many low- and medium-resource countries, including South Africa [6,13].

Despite Amaranthus’s key role in addressing nutrient-related challenges, there is a gap in the information on the most commonly consumed/sold species in many localities and countries in the study area. Information regarding this is necessary to promote its consumption retention in rural and urban communities. Similarly, there is little research on production and post-harvest practices including the processing and marketing of Amaranthus leafy vegetables. Currently, the influence of the Western lifestyle has been considered a factor that modifies the dietary lifestyle of people; hence, cruciferous vegetables are mostly preferred over indigenous vegetables resulting in underutilisation [14]. Therefore, encouraging the cultivation and commercialization of indigenous leafy vegetables, including Amaranthus, may provide quality nutrition and livelihoods in rural communities. Given the limited information on the most sold and consumed species in the study area, this study investigates the most sold and consumed species of Amaranthus, and the challenges faced along its value chain in the KwaZulu-Natal province.

1.1. Concept of the Value Chain

A value chain is a process by which products are perceived via different stages. This starts with the production and transformation of the produce [15]. The stage begins with input from the suppliers to processors, exporters, and consumers who are the buyers. The value chain also encompasses those engaged in the activities required to bring an agricultural product from its production stage to the end users (consumption) [6,16]. A value chain has interesting features as it involves a holistic activity that monitors all the processes, including institutions if there are any, actors, and connections, that lead to value-adding and the constraints that may have occurred along the value chain. The Amaranthus chain then represents a set of actors who add to or increase its value throughout the different linkages of the value chain, beginning from the production stage, its commercialization, and consumption as the end use.

1.2. Importance of Value Chains

Value chains are necessary because they are considered to ease the creation of productive associations that will allow the most efficient use of resources; if they highlight the role of distribution and marketing as key factors for greater competitiveness in the market, this may ease the flow of information between actors. It might also help with a joint solution, by identifying the problems and hold-ups throughout the chain. The value chain allows independent and joint analysis of each link along the chain [16]. Broadly, a value chain aims at providing the commercial connections and flows of inputs, products, information, financial resources, logistics, marketing, and other services between producers, suppliers of inputs, processing plants, exporters, retailers, and other economic agents participating in the supply of products and services to the final consumers [6]. A value chain is also considered an agreement or strategic network system between several independent organizations within a productive chain [16]. Like other agricultural products, Amaranthus faces various challenges throughout its value chain.

1.3. Amaranthus and Its Challenges Along the Value Chain

There are different species of Amaranthus, but they are often difficult to characterize taxonomically [17]. This challenge may be due to the overall similarity in the diversity of Amaranthus, as some are small, and it is difficult to see the diagnostic parts; besides that, they have broad geographical distribution, which may be the reason for many of the Amaranthus synonyms [6,16].

It has been identified that research on agriculture, rural development policies, and programs mostly focuses on other plants compared to the research carried out on indigenous vegetables like Amaranthus [6]. Also, there is less attention on who takes responsibility for ‘what’, which leads to a lack of services of the agricultural extension and agricultural credit of Amaranthus among smallholder farmers and this leads to a lack of storage facilities; this has been identified as one of the constraints militating the marketing of Amaranthus [6]. This, in turn, forces traders to buy Amaranthus in small quantities that can only be sold in a day or few days since Amaranthus is highly perishable [16]. Furthermore, inadequate infrastructure like selling shelves where street vendors can display their produce in the marketplace is lacking. This problem often leads to increased dehydration in the Amaranthus leaves, causing wilting and spoilage; these challenges often force the sellers to reduce the prices and sales [6]. Mismanagement of any perishable foods, including Amaranthus, has been identified as a serious challenge in the marketing and distributing aspects of the value chain [11,16]. This is because the perishable nature of vegetables often leads to a drastic loss of food quality after harvest before it reaches the consumption stage [6]. In addition, financial constraints pose significant challenges to farmers and traders, hindering their ability to produce Amaranthus on a larger scale and purchase Amaranthus in bulk for resale, respectively [6,18]. Similarly, the incorrect perception that Amaranthus is a crop for the common man affects the patronage of Amaranthus. Even though Amaranthus leaves are the cheapest, smallholder farmers are not getting the desired patronage as these vegetables are not being purchased compared to other exotic vegetables like cabbage, lettuce, kale, and broccoli, among others [19].

1.4. Challenges Facing the Farmers of Amaranthus

It has been reported that smallholder farmers of Amaranthus are challenged with accessing agricultural support and services (credit and extension services) [19]. This means that, although smallholder farmers are highly motivated to become commercial farmers, they are hardly integrated into the value chain and are thus excluded from accessing the credit facilities that may aid their farming practices. Hence, their dreams continue to be a mirage and a challenge that incapacitates livelihood [8]. The main challenges along the value chain of Amaranthus in the study site include climate change and poor infrastructure, which hinder the possibility of benefiting from the value chain [20]. Therefore, investigation of the more commonly sold and consumed Amaranthus varieties along the value chain is crucial because it appears that there are limited studies on Amaranthus sales along the entire value chain. Thus, this study aims to determine the most sold variety while examining its challenges along the value chain.

1.5. Common Species of Amaranthus in South Africa and Their Morphological Characteristics

Amaranthus spp. are one of the commonly underutilized traditional vegetables in South Africa. Even though Amaranthus is hardly cultivated, some species have been grown in South Africa. These species include Amaranthus (A.) thunbergii, commonly known as Thunberg’s Amaranthus, A. spinosus, A. hybridus, A. deflexus, A. hypochondriacus, A. greazicans, A. viridis, A. cruentus, A. tricolor, A. dubius, and A. caudatus [6,10,13]. The morphological characteristics of these species are discussed below:

• Amaranthus thunbergii, is an erect variety of Amaranthus that can grow up to 50 cm. This species is usually found in Southern Africa but, is also found throughout the wild regions of South Africa including KwaZulu-Natal, where it is consumed by people who speak the Setswana and Sesotho languages [11,21]. The leaves are consumed either as flavors or vegetables in soups. The inflorescence of this species is greenish in the axillary region, clustered with brown or shiny black seeds [11].
• Amaranthus spinous also, called spiny or pigweed amaranth, has edible leaves like other leafy vegetables. Amaranthus spinous is called spiny amaranth because its leaves have sharp spines of various sizes. It is usually found mostly in the wild and can grow up to 100 cm [8,22]. The stems of Amaranthus spinosus are angular, while the leaves alternate with the inflorescence, made up of dense clusters; the seeds are black and shiny with a narrow margin and are mainly found throughout KwaZulu-Natal and Limpopo provinces in the Republic of South Africa (RSA) [11].
• Amaranthus deflexus or perennial pigweed, commonly known as large-fruit amaranth, is an Amaranthus species that grows up to 50 cm, with alternate leaves that do not separate into leaflets (Afrigis, 2022). Its inflorescence is usually dense, having a leafy characteristic at the base of the plant; its seeds are bigger than those of other Amaranthus species, and the leaves are edible by humans. They are usually found around Limpopo and KwaZulu-Natal provinces in South Africa [6,22,23].
• Amaranthus hypochondriacus is usually cultivated for its grain purpose [11]. They usually have spirally arranged, edible leaves used as any other leafy vegetable because they equally have a mild flavor. The plant is dynamic and erect, with a height ranging from 40 to 200 cm. Also, its stems are usually branched mostly in inflorescence. Amaranthus hypochondriacus flowers are unisexual with seeds that are either white, yellow, or black; this species has been seen growing in the Northern Cape [22].
• Amaranthus graecizans is a widely spreading pigweed species, mainly consumed as leafy vegetable [22]. The leaves are arranged spirally, while the inflorescence is the axillary cluster. The height ranges from 50 to 150 cm, and it strongly branches from the lower part [6]. The flowers are yellow, unisexual, and contain round black seeds [13]. The species is known to be resistant to pests and diseases. Amaranthus graecizans is cultivated in KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga, and Limpopo provinces in the Republic of South Africa [6,24].
• Amaranthus viridis. The province where A. viridis originated is unknown. This variety is commonly known as slender amaranth and is widely consumed as a leafy vegetable; it is an annual plant with an upright, light-green stem. It can grow up to about 60–80 cm with branches, which emerge from the base, while the leaves are oval [22]. Its flowers are unisexual, with smooth and glossy seeds, and they are commonly harvested from the wild, though they are sometimes cultivated. A. virdis is usually found around the KwaZulu-Natal and Limpopo provinces in the Republic of South Africa [4].
• Amaranthus hybridus is generally known as smooth pigweed; it has green leaves with characteristics like red blemishes, but they are eaten as any other vegetable [7]. It can grow to 180C and can be harvested after 120 days of cultivation. They are usually found around Limpopo and KwaZulu-Natal provinces in the RSA [4].
• Amaranthus Cruentus, also known as purple or red amaranth, is one of the three amaranth species cultivated for their grain purposes in South Africa [10]. The tender leaves are eaten as a leafy vegetable, while the seeds can be germinated and eaten as a nutritious sprout. The stems are branched, and the leaves are arranged spirally, and it can grow up to 200 cm tall. Amaranthus cruentus has unisexual flowers with smooth and tiny seeds [6].
• Amaranthus tricolor belongs to the multi-colored Amaranthus species; usually consumed as leafy vegetables. They are usually seen growing in the wild; even in South Africa, they can grow up to 125 cm. The leaves are arranged spirally with unisexual and smooth black or brown seeds [4].

Despite the various species endemic to South Africa, the literature is scarce on the most sold and consumed Amaranthus in the study area.

2. Amaranthus Production in South Africa

The South African climate is considered favorable for the cultivation of Amaranthus (Emmanuel and Babalola, 2022). Irrespective of agroecology, Amaranthus is a summer plant that grows easily [6,11]. Specifically, it has been reported that most Amaranthus varieties prefer temperatures above 250 °C. However, the temperature should not be lower than 150 °C [4]. Amaranthus are unlike cruciferous leafy vegetables. They cannot withstand low temperatures; hence, the timing of Amaranthus cultivation is an issue that needs to be addressed. This implies that low temperatures are considered too cold for the Amaranth plant. After all, it makes the plant fibrous and, in the end, bent.

Also, Amaranth plants are photoperiod sensitive, meaning that they can develop responses to a relative length of light and dark periods; hence, they begin flowering if the day length is less than 12 h [4]. Also, it has been identified that longer periods, like twelve hours of day length, can help to increase the number of phytochemicals and other antioxidants present in the leaves, which is advantageous to consumers [11].

Water scarcity has been identified as a major concern for crop production in South Africa, but amaranth is a drought-tolerant plant, which places it in an advantageous position for local production with little attention. Notwithstanding, a prolonged dry spell has been identified to induce early flowering of the amaranth plant, which decreases the leaf yield and will thus affect the market quality [4,11]. To facilitate growth and yield, supplementary irrigation has been considered essential, especially after transplanting or even when sowing directly.

3. Challenges of Amaranth Production in South Africa

Interest in the nutritional value of wild vegetables like amaranth is lacking. Specifically, Amaranth, like other underutilized indigenous leafy vegetables, is facing lots of challenges in South Africa. It is reported that the amaranth value chain is not organized, with most of the vegetables harvested in the wild [21]. Also, there has not been commercial production of Amaranthus. Hence, data is scarce on its commercial level of production and sales [11]. Moreover, underutilized crops including Amaranthus compete with other conventional crops, and most innovations are tilted toward Amaranthus grain crops [6]. More awareness of its nutritional composition and application in staple food preparation is needed. However, education for farmers is lacking regarding the nutritional value of amaranth and the conditions required for its production. Little availability of extension services and limited research, in all agroecological fields, are some of the reasons why Amaranthus is still underutilized in the country [4,6].

4. Materials and Methods

4.1. Description of the Study Area

The study was conducted in the province of KwaZulu-Natal, in Empangeni, which is 160 km from Durban in the hilly countryside of the uThungulu district. The surrounding environs of Empangeni are known as suitable for cotton, cattle, and timber, in addition to sugarcane plantations, with hot, sticky, languid days. Empangeni was originally the location of a Norwegian Mission station founded near the stream called Empangeni and was later moved to Eshowe. The Geolocation of Empangeni is −28°44′50.3868″, 31°54′ 315442.7078 (SAHO, 2017). This study involved community-based research; hence, a mixed method comprising qualitative and quantitative approaches was adopted and used to reveal information regarding the research question and objectives under study. The mixed design methodology was found to be suitable and essential because it assists in providing a strong foundation for community-based participatory research [25]. Community-based participatory research is a collaborative research approach. It seeks and considers the community members’ opinions. In this study, 6 key informants from each open market participated in the study; the formal markets comprised the upper-, middle-, and lower-socioeconomic-status classes. The open markets include street vendors and farmers of Amaranthus in the rural community of the Empangeni (peri-urban) and Durban markets in the urban areas of KZN. The approach of qualitative research helps to gather participants’ experiences, perceptions, and behaviors. It seeks to answer the “how and why” instead of just “how many or how much”. Qualitative research design involves the use of semi-structured interviews. Qualitative research could be structured as a stand-alone study, which relies on qualitative data [26,27]. The sociodemographic data of the informants were also collected, as described in

Table 1. Sociodemographic characteristics of Amaranthus informal markets in the rural community.

Variables	Informal Market (X) Frequency (%)	Informal Market (Y) Frequency (%)
Age Group (years)
26–30	0 (0.0)	0 (0.0)
31–40	1 (16.7)	1 (16.7)
41–50	2 (33.3)	4 (66.6)
51–60	3 (50.0)	1 (16.7)
Race
Black	6 (100.0)	6 (100.0)
Indian	0 (0.0)	0 (0.0)
White	0 (0.0)	0 (0.0)
Gender
Male	0 (0.0)	0 (0.0)
Female	6 (100.0)	6 (100.0)
Educational status
Informal	1 (16.7)	3 (50.0)
Primary	3 (50.0)	2 (33.3)
High school	2 (33.3)	1 (16.7)
Tertiary	0 (0)	0 (0)

.

4.2. Sampling Technique

Purposive convenience sampling was employed to gather data from Amaranthus farmers, formal marketers (upper, middle, and lower classes), and informal marketers (street vendors). This sampling technique was deemed suitable as it effectively targeted those involved in farming and selling Amaranthus, ensuring the collection of relevant data for the study.

These categories of people were purposively selected as they constitute the producers and input sources; purposive sampling is a non-random sampling technique for study. The sampling strategy targeted Amaranthus farmers and sellers who were available and willing to participate in the study. Hence, it is a non-probability sampling technique otherwise known as a selective, judgmental, or subjective technique. The purposive sampling technique was based on the characteristics of the population and the objective of the study. Interviews with several key informants’ (4–6) have been recommended in the literature [28]. The assessment relies on semi-structured interviews with key informants in the communities. This strategy assumes that specific kinds of people holding unique and different views of importance about the ideas and issues regarding the study are included [29,30].

Face-to-face interviews were conducted using semi-structured and unstructured questionnaires to collect data from key informants who are Amaranthus sellers. A purposive convenient sampling technique was employed to gather data from nine supervisors of the fruit and vegetable sections across three socioeconomic classes (upper, middle, and lower) in formal markets within rural and urban communities, totaling 18 supervisors. The data collection process considered the most common variety of Amaranthus sold in the mall while assessing Amaranthus along its value chain.

4.3. Data Analysis

The data in this study were analyzed using descriptive narrative content analysis. Descriptive narrative content analysis merges narrative analysis and content analysis to explore and elucidate the opinions of individuals within the study. This methodology enabled researchers to examine and interpret narratives systematically, uncovering themes and meanings embedded within the data.

5. Results and Discussion

Table 1 and

Table 2. Sociodemographic of informal marketers of Amaranthus in the urban community.

Sociodemographic Characteristic	Informal Market A Frequency (%)	Informal Market B Frequency (%)	Informal Market C Frequency (%)
Age Group (years)
26–30	0 (0.0)	0 (0.0)	0 (0.0)
31–40	1 (16.7)	1 (16.7)	1 (16.7)
41–50	2 (33.3)	2 (33.3)	3 (50.0)
51–60	3 (50)	3 (50)	2 (33.7)
Race
Black African	2 (33.3)	6 (100)	6 (100.0)
Indian	4 (66.7)	0 (0.0)	0 (0.0)
Gender
Male	4 (66.7)	0 (0.0)	0 (0.0)
Female	2 (33.3)	6 (100)	6 (100)
Educational status
Informal	1 (16.7)	1 (16.7)	2 (33.3)
Primary	3 (50.0)	3 (50.0)	3 (50.0)
High school	2 (33.3)	2 (33.3)	1 (16.7)
Tertiary	0 (0.0)	0 (0.0)	0 (0.0)

describe the demographics of the informal marketers of Amaranthus in rural and urban communities. The age group of people who volunteered to participate in this study cut across 26–60 years; most of them were within the age bracket of 41–60 years. The leading sellers of Amaranthus in the informal market (X) and informal market (Y) were 100% black African women, as described in Table 1.

Similarly, as can be seen in Table 2, black African women represented most people in the urban informal market settings. However, Indian men, women, and black African women bought and sold Amaranthus at Y popularly. The study shows that 100% of the population of this study were black African females. This study is like the study reported by Senyolo (2018), who reports that most farmers and marketers of South African vegetables, including Amaranthus, are females [16].

Although it is perceived that street vendors are the least educated, in this study, about 50% of the population in both locations (rural and urban) were literate and had primary school education. In comparison, n = 2 (33.3%) had secondary school education, and very few, n = 1 (16.7%), had an informal education. The informal market is situated in an Indian community; it is an open market that operates twice a week (Fridays and Saturdays) and is patronized by mostly Africans, Indian men, and women. However, a significant percentage, 66.7% (n = 4), of the people selling Amaranthus were Indian men and women. On the other hand, 33.3% (n = 2) of the Africans selling Amaranthus were women. Interestingly, Amaranthus is a food plant that provides nutrition and a means of livelihood for its sellers; hence, during the study, it was observed that most sellers of Amaranthus were self-employed because they were mainly traders of Amaranthus.

Table 3. Formal marketers of Amaranthus in a rural community.

Malls ID Numbers	Commonly Sold Variety of Amaranthus	Source of the Amaranthus; Company Farm/Supply	Remarks
Upper class 1	Not applicable	Not applicable	Out of the range of goods sold
Upper class 2	Not applicable	Not applicable	Slow-selling vegetable
Upper class 3	Amaranthus spinosus and red and green A. cruentus	Supply	Fast-selling vegetable
Middle class 1	Amaranthus Cruentus and spinosus	Supply	Fast-selling vegetable
Middle class 2	Amaranthus spinosus and red and green A. cruentus	Supply	Fast-selling vegetable
Middle class 3	Not applicable	Not applicable	Out of the range of goods sold
Lower class 1	Not applicable	Not applicable	Out of the range of goods sold
Lower class 2	Not applicable	Not applicable	Out of the range of goods sold
Lower class 3	Not applicable	Not applicable	Out of the range of goods sold (this implies that it is not a product that is sold in their market)

shows that only one of the high-class malls sells Amaranthus the urban malls; others attest that Amaranthus is out of the range of the goods they sell. However, Table 3 shows that two people from the middle-class groups sell Amaranthus. They do not own a farm but are being supplied. On the contrary, the lower class is not selling Amaranthus because Amaranthus is sold on the street and close to those malls. Thus, their response was, why do they bother selling it when people can access it just outside the mall?

Table 3 shows that only one of the high-class malls sells Amaranthus of the urban malls. This implies that there may be people who could buy Amaranthus in the high-class group, but perhaps this could be denied due to the relegation of the plant. The others attest that Amaranthus is out of the range of goods they sell. Also, Table 3 shows that two of those in the middle class sell Amaranthus. They do not own a farm of their own but are being supplied. On the contrary, the lower class is not selling Amaranthus because Amaranthus is sold on the street and close to those malls.

Table 4. Formal marketers of Amaranthus in urban Durban.

Malls	Commonly Sold Varieties of Amaranthus	Sources of the Amaranthus Company Farm/Supply	Remarks
Upper class 1	Not applicable	Not applicable	Out of the range of goods sold
Upper class 2.	Not applicable	Not applicable	Slow-selling goods
Upper class 3	Amaranthus spinosus and red and green A. cruentus	Supply	Fast-selling vegetables
Middle class 1	Amaranthus Cruentus and spinosus	Supply	Fast-selling vegetables
Middle class 2	Amaranthus Spinosus and red and green A. cruentus	Supply	Fast-selling vegetables
Middle class 3	Not applicable	Not applicable	Out of the range of goods sold
Lower class 1	Not applicable	Not applicable	Out of the range of goods sold
Lower class 2	Not applicable	Not applicable	Out of the range of goods sold
Lower class 3	Not applicable	Not applicable	Out of the range of goods sold

shows that only one of the upper-class malls, number 3, sells Amaranthus; others (1 and 2) attest that Amaranthus is out of the range of the goods they sell. Similarly, Table 3 shows that in mall number 2, middle-class people sell Amaranthus. They do not own a farm but are being supplied to resell. On the contrary, the lower class does not sell Amaranthus because Amaranthus is sold close to the streets where the formal markets are located.

5.1. Informants’ General Knowledge of the Common Species of Amaranthus in Empangeni

KwaZulu-Natal, especially Empangeni, is endowed with a variety of nutrient-dense traditional leafy vegetables. All the key informants interviewed in the study area were familiar with most vegetables, including Amaranthus. The indigenous vegetables in the study site include Imbuya, izintanga (pumpkin leaves), and spinach ugobolo, which were sold in the informal market in Durban. Amaranthus (A.) was the most familiar and cheapest traditional leafy vegetable on the study site. Although 70 species of Amaranthus have been domesticated worldwide, Amaranthus spinous, a wild species that is also known as pigweed, and the red and green A. cruentus were the common species grown in Empangeni. Amaranthus spinosus including A. dubius, and the red and the green A. cruentus varieties were Empangeni’s most dominant and most popularly grown and consumed amaranth species.

During the study, Spinous Amaranthus was observed; growing along the roadsides and on fallow lands and refuse dump sites without cultivation. This study agrees with studies that report that Amaranthus spinous is a species that is harvested in the wild [11]. Empirically, Amaranthus is cultivated in rural areas, compared to the urban setting; it was also identified that Amaranthus spinous grows in between other crops without being cultivated. Amaranthus was known to be a good and healthy plant with health benefits in the study area. However, the key informants have no scientific/nutritional knowledge of the nutritional composition of Amaranthus. Most informants attest that they grew up eating Amaranthus as part of the indigenous food. An informant in Durban said, “Amaranthus contains vitamins; hence when people are sick, they usually eat Amaranthus because it is considered an excellent plant for human consumption since it is naturally grown and is free from chemicals and industrial fertilizers”.

5.2. Cultivation of Amaranthus Before Harvesting

The planting season for Amaranthus is usually in late spring or early summer; it germinates after the first 3 to 7 days of planting. However, without the seed being planted, most of the wild Amaranthus varieties grow amidst other crops after the establishment of the rainy season, and it takes two weeks to observe the physical appearance of the leaves. An informant reported that within two months of planting, broad leaves and flowers of the amaranth plant manifest, but the first apparent sign is the shoots of broad leaves. Even though Amaranthus is a drought-resistant plant, during the study, it was captured that Amaranthus could only start germinating after the rain had been established or when an irrigation plant was used to water the plants. Germination and growth are evident when there is a shoot of the seedlings, leaves flourish, and the length and size of the plant increase by the day [6]. Amaranthus is ready and harvested within two months of germination. The quantity yield and quality of the Amaranthus leaves is a crucial determinant of the harvesting time when Amaranthus leaves are still green and fresh; the freshness of Amaranthus is ascertained when the stems are tender [4]. Overmatured Amaranthus stems do have market value challenges, and people do not buy such Amaranthus because it is considered stale. Hence, Amaranthus should not be allowed to overmature before harvesting as buyers usually do not purchase the tough stems. Amaranthus cultivation, harvest, and consumption were revealed to be common and at their peak in the summer period.

5.3. Amaranthus Cultivation Among Informal Market Group A

In informal market group A, it was noted that Amaranthus grows without planting; these findings are consistent with those studies conducted by the authors of [11,24]. Some informants have sizable farmland and gardens where a portion is used for the cultivation of Amaranthus, whereas those who do not have farmland buy Amaranthus from the market. However, one of the informants has a big garden that is the size of a soccer field. In contrast, those with household gardens for Amaranthus usually utilize the backyard area of their house or beside their homes [4,6]. One of the Indian Amaranthus sellers owns farmland of about 5 to 7 hectares, where he cultivates other crops alongside Amaranthus. The farmland that the Indian man in informal market group A uses to grow Amaranthus is in the backyard/front of the house.

5.4. Type of Labor Utilized by the Smallholder Farmers in the Study Area

Most small-scale farmers and sellers cultivate Amaranthus themselves because they opined that skilled labor is expensive. The study reveals that most informants utilize unskilled labor to grow the Amaranthus themselves; however, family members and other relatives sometimes assist the cultivators of Amaranthus. There is no skilled or mechanized farming involved in small-scale farming. However, historically, donkeys have been used to cultivate Amaranthus, but this is no longer practiced today.

5.5. Economic Importance of Growing Amaranthus in Rural and Urban Centers, as Perceived by the Study Participants

Although there are several species of Amaranthus grown across the world and in Africa, the leafy species comprising A. spinosus, including the dubius variety and the red and green A. cruentus, were the most grown Amaranthus in Empangeni, KwaZulu-Natal. These species are majorly grown for household consumption. However, it was gathered in the study that the Amaranthus are not consumed by the farmer alone but are sometimes given out to relatives and other people as an act of kindness to neighbors. Besides consumption, Amaranthus are also grown and sold to meet different household needs; this means that Amaranthus is a source of employment for the informants and other community members. However, the land used to cultivate Amaranthus is usually not large; thus, informants cultivate land by themselves. At open market Y, an informant said he has been growing and supplying Amaranthus vegetables for 5 to 22 years. All kinds of people including adult African South Africans, foreign Africans, Indians, and people of other nationalities purchase Amaranthus leafy vegetables. However, black people and Indian people are the most frequent buyers of Amaranthus. Those with gardens and farmland sell a lot during summer when it is in its season, while those who obtain it from suppliers sell only when it is available.

5.6. Commercialization Practices of Amaranthus Vegetables Among the Participants

It was revealed during the study that formal marketers, of Amaranthus, obtained their supplies from South Durban. The farmer supplies Amaranthus to the mall in bunches that weigh 232 g and were usually sold at R5 before the COVID-19 pandemic and the flood. However, after COVID-19, and the flood, the price of the same bunch has increased to R7. 99. Sometimes it rises to ZAR10 per bundle of Amaranthus leaves depending on how much their suppliers supply to the mall. However, despite the rise in food prices, Amaranthus is still the cheapest indigenous leafy vegetable.

5.7. Frequency of Sales of Amaranthus in the Study Area

All the key informants sell Amaranthus daily, except for one person who sells Amaranthus only when supplies are available. Both cultivation and consumption of Amaranthus are mostly at their peak in summer because that is when Amaranthus is being harvested, even in the wild.

5.8. Farmer’s Perception of Amaranthus in the Study Area

The informants attest that even though Amaranthus is linked with less privileged people, it is a homegrown vegetable that is well-known and appreciated by the community. It is a valuable plant because it is perceived as a natural plant that grows organically almost everywhere; as such, it is free from chemical fertilizers. Furthermore, their ancestors appreciated the Amaranthus plant; hence, it is a plant food that should be passed down to their generation. They are not precise about the nutritional content of Amaranthus; however, they consider it “as a plant with various medicinal and healing effects which can sustain one’s health”. This investigation can be likened to those studies reported by the authors of [6,11]. It has been established that Amaranthus is among the nutrient-dense plants with medicinal healing potential [6]. However, it is a neglected plant linked to disadvantaged people in society.

5.9. Smallholder-Farmer Amaranthus Producers in the Study Area

In the study area, Amaranthus is mainly produced and sold by smallholder farmers, that practice their farming system on less than a hectare of land around the home environment, where they cultivate Amaranthus and other indigenous vegetables. Smallholder farmers implore the traditional practices for Amaranthus production, using localized farming systems (landraces). Some smallholder farmers are involved in saving and supplying input services such as saving seeds that they have harvested from the previous farming of Amaranthus for the next farming season. Given the relatively high perishability level of leafy vegetables, the producers are sometimes compelled to sell their produce immediately after harvest, which leads to low farm-gate prices.

5.10. Intermediaries/Traders of Amaranthus in the Study Area

Traders buy products (Amaranthus) from producers to resell them to retailers or consumers. In this study, women were not producers of Amaranthus, like the middlemen, whose main functions included the collection of Amaranthus from the producers. They maintained the quality of the products by covering them in sacks to preserve their freshness until they were transferred to the following agents, who were street vendors of Amaranthus. The actors in the value chain of Amaranthus in the rural community mainly sell Amaranthus for household consumption and to generate money for other utilities in the house. However, the large retail (supermarket) stores such as middle market 1 and upper-class market 3 attest that they have contract agreements with their approved suppliers and distributors who meet the quality and standards of the Amaranthus vegetables, which are met through their distributors [6]). Although the distributors buy vegetables from smallholder farmers, some supermarkets (middle-class marketers 1 and 2) have a direct relationship with small-scale farmers because they sell other traditional African leafy vegetables that can be obtained directly. All the supermarkets trade with small-holder farmers without any formal contract. Once the quality of the product is acceptable, they buy it on the spot. The open markets are operating successfully in Empangeni, the local marketers of Amaranthus in the study areas buy Amaranthus directly from farmers/suppliers. It was noted that there was no formal contract between the open market and the farmers.

5.11. Processing of Amaranthus by Farmers in the Study Area

Amaranthus dubius leaf extract has been investigated for medicinal use [31]. Some leafy vegetables like Moringa have been processed into leaf powder. However, the processing of Amaranthus dubius into powder has scarcely been documented; instead, smallholder farmers’ old method of sun-drying vegetables was practiced in the past and is rarely practiced in contemporary times. Currently, modern forms of food processing and preservation methods include the use of canning and branded packaging. These food processing methods aim to meet the needs and preferences of the younger generation and the urban dwellers, which are not practiced along the Amaranthus value chain. Hence, the younger generation and urban dwellers rarely consume such Amaranthus processed locally. Along the value chain, Amaranthus is sold locally in its fresh form in formal and informal markets. The marketing channel of Amaranthus undergoes, three channels (Figure 1): smallholder farmers selling directly to consumers, smallholder farmers selling to retailers, and smallholder farmers selling directly to middlemen (collectors).

5.12. Value Chain of Amaranthus

Figure 1 describes the simple value chain where various actors have a link, in the chain that facilitates Amaranthus production and services from the producers to the plates. Farmers cultivated Amaranthus and supplied it to intermediaries who sold it to retailers and consumers. In this study, it is interesting to note that Amaranthus provided a source of employment as most of the informal market sellers were vegetable and Amaranthus traders, hence they were self-employed. It was gathered in the study that “Amaranthus is a quick-growing and -selling vegetable”.

5.13. Common Ingredient Used in Amaranthus Food-Based Products

Within the study site, Amaranthus vegetables are prepared using common ingredients; little oil, onions, and salt’ were mentioned as the common ingredients used when preparing imbuya; however, some people add chilies/tomatoes and a knorrox cube, but they are optional. Amaranthus is usually served with complementary food like isigwamba, Ama batata (sweet potatoes), and Uphutu (stiff pap from mealy maize).

5.14. Proximity and Transportation of Amaranthus to the Market by Major Players/Stakeholders in the Study Area

Amaranthus is harvested and transported immediately by taxi to the market. However, one of the key informants waits up to 2 days before supplying because he uses an overnight means of transportation as the only option. However, three key informants with small garden plots sell their Amaranthus 15–30 min away from their houses, while some sell in front of their homes. Those with bigger farmland take it to the open market, about a 2 to 3-h drive away from their farmland. Most of the Amaranthus sellers do not own a car. Hence, taxis are the most common source of transport, used for transferring Amaranthus from farmland and gardens to the point of sale. Very few informants use their vehicles for supply. Some of the Amaranthus sellers do not supply to other sellers; those who do supply to Clairwood and informal market group A. Most times, Amaranthus is provided to buyers in the morning hours. It is supplied immediately after harvesting within the maximum period of two days. Sometimes, when it is harvested in the evening, it is transported overnight. This is being carried out to minimize post-harvest loss.

5.15. Indigenous Knowledge System Surrounding Amaranthus in the Study Area

Indigenous knowledge systems (IKSs) include the beliefs and knowledge developed within indigenous societies, which are not dependent on the advent of the modern scientific knowledge system. During the study, it was noted that there are cultural and ritual beliefs associated with Amaranthus. This study revealed that Amaranthus is used for prayers to God and the ancestor’s ceremonies and sacrifices for the dead. This is a similar finding to those of other studies that attested that Amaranthus was used for religious purposes in the ancient times of Mesoamerica, which was significant in their worship of gods in the place of origin (America). An informant said that it is used to pray to ancestors because the ancestors ate Amaranthus during his/her lifetime, and they believe it is a natural food that the ancestors appreciated during their lifetime. Hence, it is often cooked with amabata (sweet potatoes), and it is presented to the ancestors when praying (cooking Amaranthus, cocoyam, and Mbila in the shrine in the presence of candles). Some cultures use Amaranthus to prepare food that will be served during ceremonies like the Heritage Days ceremony. Some traditional ceremonies involve cooking Amaranthus with Isiqwamba, and they place it in the shrine.

5.16. Post-Harvest Practices

5.16.1. Cleaning Practices of Amaranthus Vegetables

Cleaning Amaranthus involves trimming the roots and stems to remove garden or farm soil and compost debris. This trimming practice ensures cleanliness before the Amaranthus is sold. The roots are being trimmed down because people believe this part is not edible. In addition, it was revealed that the stems are often trimmed down before selling them. However, it is noted that whenever the stems are tough, it implies that the Amaranthus was harvested late; this means the trimming of the stems connotes both quality and quantity loss because it is established that the tender stems of the Amaranthus vegetables are loaded with nutrients; hence, discarding it amounts to a loss of quality. In the informal market in Empangeni, Amaranthus is not weighed but is quantified by three hands full and packaged in white plastic bags for sale at ZAR10 per plastic bag. The urban setting, Amaranthus is displayed on the table, and water is sprinkled over the leaves to conserve their freshness.

Post-harvest losses constitute a significant source of produce waste within the agricultural value chain. Efficient post-harvest management that reduces post-harvest losses is vital for sustaining the entire value chain of any crop including Amaranthus; it can thus be a key factor in achieving food and nutrition security, even in Sub-Saharan Africa. Post-harvest loss for Sub-Saharan African leafy vegetables is reported to be more than 50%, resulting from various constraints along “the field to consumer” part of the value chain. The post-harvest management of leafy Amaranthus in the study area encompasses harvesting, cleaning, and packaging it into sacks and plastic, and tying bundles, before selling them to the middlemen or before transporting them to the market. Although a few operations are being practiced in the aspect of the value chain, they are practiced in detail with attention, and this is carried out to minimize the losses of Amaranthus along the chain. Diverse post-harvest practices have been carried out and reported in different ways.

Post-harvest losses are summarized into different types: physical, otherwise known as quantity; quality; economic; and nutritional losses [32]. Quality losses usually happen when food is polluted; for example, contaminants like microbiological, chemical, or physical hazards can downgrade a food product and reduce its patronage and market value. Failure to sell the food product could further deteriorate the food’s texture, color, or flavor. Physical and quality losses are the most common conditions that lead to economic losses; they mostly happen when parts of the products are lost or when the monetary value decreases because of the types of loss [16,33]. Quality loss can occur during food preparation processes and food handling practices that, in the long run, lead to a loss of the nutrient content of the food; this exemplifies the loss of micronutrients in various foods, which leads to hidden hunger [34]. Therefore, reducing hunger will demand suitable interventions for all types of losses. Studies have shown that post-harvest loss can happen during any stage of the value chain; but can be severe at certain stages, depending on the crop [35]. During harvest, it is identified that several factors play a role in food loss: Examples of these factors include wrong harvesting times, which can be at a certain stage that leads to the over-maturity of crops and can result in food spoilage [35]. Also, weather patterns can subject one to delayed or rushed harvesting activities, leading to significant food loss [36].

5.16.2. Processing/Preservation of the Commonly Sold Amaranthus Varieties Among Informal Marketers

There were no processing or preservation techniques for Amaranthus at the study site. Rather, the unsold Amaranthus is being discarded because it is no longer fresh. However, some sellers combine it with spinach to make soup for their families.

5.16.3. Marketing Leftovers of Amaranthus Vegetables

There is always a demand for Amaranthus; however, when the supply exceeds the quantity demanded, the remainder becomes a waste. One informant indicated that he goes door to door to sell it at a giveaway price, which helps him avoid wasting the leftover Amaranthus leaves. Another informant attests that in the olden days, excess Amaranthus were sun-dried and saved for the next use; however, present-day people no longer implement this practice. This implies there are post-harvest losses of both quantity and quality along the value chain of Amaranthus.

5.16.4. Challenges Encountered by Small-Scale Farmers of Amaranthus

All categories (races) of people, Indian, black, and white, who are adults in the low and middle classes, purchase Amaranthus leafy vegetables. The common challenges small-scale farmers of Amaranthus are experiencing on the farmland include a lack of human resources; also, mechanized farming that fosters crop yield is absent, in addition to there being lots of droughts, a shortage of rain and no water, the problem of scarcity of seeds, poor soil texture and a lack of fertilizers, a lack of fences around their farmlands, and a lack of chemicals.

One of the problems encountered during the study is that the vendors, considered informal marketers, lack buyers; this results in a reduction in price, loss of profit, and sometimes wastage. Lots of storms and too much rain negatively impacts amaranth plants. Also, a lack of land, a lack of financial support, the issue of climate change, and stigmatization are commonly linked with people selling Amaranthus because they are being treated as insignificant and less privileged humans who are considered as not/less educated individuals. Also, high temperatures and a prolonged scarcity of rain during summer were identified as a challenge that affects the yield of Amaranthus leaves; this can be likened to the study reported by the authors of [16]. Although it has been established that Amaranthus is a C4 plant [6,11], the study shows that a lack of/little rain versus too much heat was identified as a challenge for some farmers, causing a reduction in the expected yield and harvest of many crops, including Amaranthus. Thus, the result and effect of the lack of/little rain scenario is a low supply of Amaranthus vegetables. This is because only those who have access to irrigation plants can thrive under such conditions. Hence, these small-scale farmers need education on how to handle the challenges of high heat. On the other hand, it was revealed that the lack of rain during winter affects cultivation. This is because Amaranthus does not germinate/do well in the winter. After all, the winter weather is too chilly for the plant to thrive [4,10]. This leads to a lack of the Amaranthus vegetable yield during winter. By implication, a lack of/limited supply of Amaranthus during winter may reduce or block the source of income of small-scale farmers, thereby affecting their livelihoods. Another challenge is that the wild Amaranthus (pigweed) plants that women pick in the wild are overcrowded, and they are bound to share the soil nutrients with the weeds on the field on which it is growing. Overcrowding with weeds or other crops may tend to affect the yield and harvest of the crop. Interestingly, despite all these challenges, some informants attest that there are no challenges except when there is no supply of Amaranthus, which will invariably be an income lost for that day; otherwise, they do not encounter any challenges along the value chain. Along the Amaranthus value chain, however, it was identified that both small-scale farming and the marketers of the Amaranthus contribute to the source of income of smallholder farmers, besides Amaranthus providing food for sustenance [37,38]. However, it is worth noting that Amaranthus is among the perishable food products, and it was identified during the study that preventable post-harvest losses occur when there are no buyers. Indigenous leafy vegetables were peculiar to the study site and were not a priority in this study. The focus was on Amaranthus. The cultivation protocols, adaptability, and active compounds of underutilized Amaranthus leafy vegetable species are also pertinent, as well as the application of these species in staple foods for food and nutrition security, which can be considered in future studies.

6. Way Forward

Given the various constraints encountered along the Amaranthus value chain, the following interventions are recommended: conducting seminars and community engagement initiatives to disseminate information on the potential and production techniques of Amaranthus. Additionally, small-scale Amaranthus farmers should receive training in business management and contract negotiation, potentially ensuring better financial returns. Encouraging smallholder farmers to cultivate indigenous vegetables, including Amaranthus, is also advised [6]. Fertilizers, seeds, and agricultural chemicals should be considered essential inputs, given that current attention predominantly focuses on compost manure. Furthermore, promoting locally available seeds and technologies can ensure the availability of inputs and promote safe and healthy food for household consumption.

The absence of post-harvest technologies for the processing and packaging services of Amaranthus is identified as a constraint in the value chain; this suggests that training and skills in processing and packaging of Amaranthus by public and private sectors might be a desirable alternative. Even though there is an increase in the growth of Amaranthus in the rural community, there is a loss in quantity and quality along the value chain; thus, food insecurity continues, and when prolonged malnutrition continues to thrive, it negatively impacts the most vulnerable. These findings are consistent with the studies around post-harvest losses of indigenous vegetables, where the supply of Amaranthus failed to meet the demand along the value chain. Smallholder farmers face difficulties accessing high-value markets, such as supermarkets, and the middlemen regularly exploit them. They cannot supply the fixed quantity and quality consistently; these present opportunities for agribusinesses to add value and upgrade the existing value chains of Amaranthus. In addition, retailers declared that smallholder farmers are unable to supply the required quantity of Amaranthus on time. The challenge is that many smallholder farmers own a small portion of land, which means little market share, resulting in a low and inadequate supply to the market. If smallholder farmers manage a collective action of the organizations to supply Amaranthus (such as cooperatives), the problem of insufficient and poor-quality supply can also be addressed. This study identified the most sold species of Amaranthus leafy vegetables in Empangeni, KwaZulu-Natal. Future research should explore other indigenous leafy vegetables unique to the area, along with the cultivation protocols, adaptability, and active compounds of underutilized Amaranthus species for enhancing food and nutrition security.

7. Conclusions

Amaranthus is a high-yielding and drought-tolerant crop that can successfully yield with little attention required in stressful weather conditions. It is an indigenous crop with the huge prospect of providing food security and redeeming Africa from poverty, food scarcity, and nutrition insecurity. The commonly sold species in the formal and informal markets in the study site were red and green Amaranthus cruentus, A. spinosus including A. dubius, and A. thunbegii. This important crop potential is yet to be explored, Therefore, there is a need for concentrated and continuous efforts in research that can coordinate all stakeholders of Amaranthus producers. Also, there is a need for the effective implementation of relevant activities that can help in its domestication. Smallholder farmers face difficulties accessing high-value markets, such as supermarkets, and the middlemen regularly exploit them.

Therefore, improving the small-scale farming of Amaranthus to become large-scale appears to be the way forward. The government should assist small-scale farmers of Amaranthus as this may enhance their productivity. Policymakers should consider providing the needed support such as land, finance, fertilizer, seed, herbicides, insecticides, and grants to encourage farmers to plant more Amaranthus.