Internal Flesh Browning in Apple and Its Predisposing Factors—A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Physiological Disorders
3. Internal Flesh Browning
3.1. Types of Internal Flesh Browning
3.1.1. Chilling Injury
Type of IFB Disorder | Sub-Category | Characteristic Feature/Symptoms | Cultivar | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Chilling injury | Low temperature breakdown | Browning of vascular bundles and some portion of fruit flesh while other portions of flesh remain unaffected | ‘Cox’s Orange Pippin’ ‘McIntosh’ | Johnson and Yogaratnam [76] Webster and Lidster [77] Bramlage [39] Meheriuk et al. [78] Watkins et al. [79] |
Core browning/Core flush | Browning of core region | ‘Empire’ | Meheriuk et al. [78] Little and Holmes [65] Watkins and Liu [63] | |
Internal browning | Discolouration of fruit flesh | _ | Meheriuk et al. [78] Little and Holmes [65] Watkins et al. [79] | |
Diffuse flesh browning | Browning of entire cortex tissue browning, while vascular bundles remain unaffected | ‘Cripps Pink’ ‘Empire’ | James and Jobling [28] Watkins and Liu [63] Bergman et al. [36] Butler [35] Crouch et al. [44] Moggia et al. [42] | |
Firm flesh browning | Browning of flesh tissue, while the affected tissue remains firm and juicy, hence differentiating it from senescent breakdown | ‘Empire’ | Watkins and Liu [63] Lee et al. [66] | |
Soggy breakdown | Typically develops irregular dark brownish portions in flesh, with sharp demarcation from healthy tissue, which distinguish it from DFB | ‘Honeycrisp’ | Watkins et al. [74] Leisso et al. [75] Tong et al. [64] | |
CO2 injury | Brown heart | Browning of vascular tissue extending to mid-cortex along with irregular, sunken dry patches on fruit skin | ‘Fuji’ | Smock [80] Moon and Koo [81] Meheriuk et al. [78] Johnson et al. [82] Volz et al. [83] Argenta et al. [84] James et al. [85] |
Braeburn browning disorder | Brown portions in fruit flesh followed by formation of lens-shaped pits or cavities | ‘Cripps Pink’ ‘Fuji’ ‘Bramley′s Seedling’ ‘Braeburn’ ‘Elstar’ | Blanpied et al. [86] Elgar et al. [31] Lau [32] Streif and Saquet [30] James et al. [48] | |
Senescent related IFB disorders | Radial flesh browning | Browning of vascular tissue, while cortex tissue remains unaffected | ‘Cripps Pink’ | James and Jobling [28] Bergman et al. [36] Butler [35] Crouch et al. [44] Moggia et al. [42] |
3.1.2. CO2 Injury
3.1.3. Senescent Related IFB Disorders
3.2. Factors Contributing to Internal Flesh Browning and Fruit Quality Deterioration
3.2.1. Pre-Harvest Orchard Factors
Fruit Size
Crop Load
Fruit Maturity at Harvest
Cultivar
3.2.2. Climatic Factors
Seasonal Temperatures
Growing Degree Days
3.2.3. Mineral Nutrition
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Potassium
Calcium
4. Commercially Available Pre-Harvest Technologies and Their Effectiveness against IFB-Related Disorders
4.1. 1-Methylcyclopropene (1-MCP)
4.2. Aminoethoxyvinylglycine (AVG)
4.3. Diphenylamine (DPA)
4.4. Other Technologies
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Pre-Harvest Factor | Intensity of Factor | IFB Risk/Incidence | Cultivar | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Tree/fruit factors | ||||
Fruit size | Large fruit | ↑ RFB & DFB | ‘Cripps Pink’ | Butler [35] |
Large fruit 250 to 350 g | ↑ Senescent breakdown | ‘Honeycrisp’ ‘Royal Gala’ | Prange et al. [100] Lee et al. [108] | |
Medium/average fruit (173–176 g) | ↑ CO2 injury | ‘Cripps Pink’ | De Castro et al. [40] | |
Crop load | Light (3.1 to 3.8 fruit cm−2 TCSA) | ↑ BBD | ‘Braeburn’ | Elgar et al. [38] |
Light | ↑ RFB | ‘Cripps Pink’ | Jobling et al. [29] James [37], Bergman et al. [36] | |
Light | ↑ IFB related disorders & BBD | _ | Little and Holmes [65] Volz et al. [127] | |
Heavy (36 to 44 tonnes/ha) | ↑ CO2 injury | ‘Cripps Pink’ | De Castro et al. [40] | |
No effect of crop load | ↔ CO2 injury | ‘Cripps Pink’ | Brown et al. [25] | |
Light (50% of standard crop load) | ↑ BBD | ‘Braeburn’ | McCormick et al. [34] | |
Maturity at harvest | Late harvest (1 week after normal) | ↑ BBD | ‘Braeburn’ | Lau [32] Streif [45] |
Late harvest (1 week after commercial) | ↑ RFB & DFB | ‘Cripps Pink’ | Brown et al. [26] | |
Late harvest (>50% starch breakdown) | ↑ RFB & DFB | ‘Rosy Glow’ | Doe et al. [43] | |
Late harvest | ↑ RFB | ‘Cripps Pink’ | Moggia et al. [42] | |
Late harvest (210 DAFB) | ↑ CO2 injury | ‘Fuji’ | Volz et al. [46] | |
Late harvest (2 to 3 weeks after commercial or 72% starch breakdown) | ↑ DFB | ‘Cripps Pink’ | Elgar et al. [38], Crouch et al. [44] | |
Both early and late harvest | ↑ CO2 injury | ‘Braeburn’ ‘Cripps Pink’ | Elgar et al. [38] De Castro et al. [40] | |
Early harvesting | ↓ FFB | ‘Empire’ | James et al. [47] Doerflinger et al. [134] Doerflinger et al. [68] | |
Cultivar | Susceptible | ↑ IFB related disorders | ‘Jonagold’ ‘Cox’s Orange Pippin’ ‘Jonathan’ ‘Delicious’ | Meheriuk et al. [78] |
Less susceptible | ↓ CO2 injury | ‘Jonagold’, ‘Kanzi’ ‘Fuji Superma’ ‘Golden Delicious’ | Saquet et al. [141] Ho et al. [89] Hatoum et al. [24] Argenta et al. [144] | |
Highly susceptible | ↑ BBD | ‘Braeburn’ | Ho et al. [89] Hatoum et al. [24] | |
Highly susceptible | ↑ CI | ‘McIntosh’ ‘Boskoop’ ‘Elstar’ | Little and Holmes [65] Watkins [101] | |
Less susceptible | ↓ CI | ‘Delicious’ ‘Granny Smith’ | Little and Holmes [65] Watkins [101] | |
Susceptible | ↑ CO2 injury | ‘Braeburn’ ‘Fuji’ ‘Rosy Glow’ ‘Han Fu’ | Elgar et al. [31] Lau [32] Volz et al. [83] Little and Holmes [65] Watkins [101] Williamson et al. [143] Li et al. [145] | |
Climate | ||||
Seasonal temperatures | Warmer climate 4–6 weeks before harvest | ↓ LTB & CB | _ | Bramlage [39] |
Higher temperatures before harvest | ↑ RFB & DFB | ‘Cripps Pink’ | Brown et al. [26] | |
Cooler climate 50 days post flowering | ↑ CO2 injury | ‘Braeburn’ | Lau [32] Little and Holmes [65] | |
Warmer average daily temperatures from 90 to 210 DAFB | ↓ CO2 injury | ‘Fuji’ | Corrêa et al. [150] | |
Warmer night temperatures (>10 °C) four weeks before harvest | ↓ BBD | ‘Braeburn’ | McCormick et al. [34] | |
Cold growing region | ↑ CO2 injury | ‘Fuji’ | Argenta et al. [149] | |
Growing degree days | GDD>10 °C below 1100 | ↑ DFB | ‘Cripps Pink’ | James and Jobling [28] James et al. [103] |
GDD>10 °C between 1100 to 1700 | ↑ RFB | |||
GDD>10 °C below 500 (during 50 to 60 DAFB) | ↑ DFB | ‘Honeycrisp’ | Tong et al. [64] | |
Mineral nutrition | ||||
Nitrogen | Higher fruit N | ↑ Internal breakdown & CB | _ | Sharples [157] Bramlage [39] |
High fruit N (>400 mg kg−1 fresh weight) | Senescent & internal breakdown | ‘Lobo’ | Dris et al. [159] | |
Internal breakdown & CB | ‘Raike’ ‘Red Atlas’ | |||
Phosphorus | Low fruit P (<110 ppm) at whole fruit less seeds and stem basis | ↑ LTB | ‘Cox’s Orange Pippin’ | Sharples [157] |
Low fruit P (<0.011%) | ↑ LTB & senescent breakdown | _ | Bergmann [171] Bramlage [39] Marcelle [155] | |
Higher fruit P (>90 ppm) at whole fruit less seeds and stem basis | ↓ LTB | ‘McIntosh’ | Bramlage et al. [163] Webster and Lidster [77] | |
Higher fruit P (18–19 mg 100 g−1 fresh weight) | ↓ LTB | ‘Cox’s Orange Pippin’ ‘McIntosh’ | Johnson and Yogaratnam [76] | |
Low fruit P (<85 ppm) at whole fruit less seeds and stem basis | ↑ LTB | ‘McIntosh’ | Webster and Lidster [77] | |
High fruit P | ↑ BBD | ‘Braeburn’ | Neuwald et al. [165] | |
Potassium | Low fruit K | ↑ LTB | _ | Sharples [157] Bergmann [171] Bramlage [39] |
Higher fruit K | ↓ CI & LTB (induces resistance to CI and LTB) | _ | Hakerlerler et al. [168] Singer and El-Tohamy [169] | |
Higher fruit K (>0.12–0.15%) | ↑ CB or Core flush | Sharples [157] Bergmann [171] | ||
Higher fruit K | ↑ CO2 injury & BBD | ‘Santana’ ‘Braeburn’ | Neuwald et al. [165,170] | |
Calcium | Higher fruit Ca (~80 mg per gram fresh weight | ↓ CO2 injury | ‘Cripps Pink’ | De Castro et al. [40] |
High Ca (~110 mg kg−1 fresh weight) or low Ca:K ratio (15.8) | ↓ DFB | ‘Cripps Pink’ | James and Jobling [57] | |
Higher fruit Ca (>4 mg 100 mg−1 fresh weight) | ↑ CO2 injury | ‘Braeburn’ | Wood et al. [181] | |
Lower fruit Ca | ↑ CO2 injury | ‘Cripps Pink’ | De Castro et al. [27] | |
Lower fruit Ca (<40–60 mg kg−1 fresh weight) | ↑ flesh breakdown & other disorders | _ | Dris et al. [159] Suzuki and Basso [182] | |
Lower fruit Ca (<80 mg kg−1 fresh weight) | ↑ CO2 injury | ‘Fuji’ | Corrêa et al. [175] |
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Sidhu, R.S.; Bound, S.A.; Swarts, N.D. Internal Flesh Browning in Apple and Its Predisposing Factors—A Review. Physiologia 2023, 3, 145-172. https://doi.org/10.3390/physiologia3020012
Sidhu RS, Bound SA, Swarts ND. Internal Flesh Browning in Apple and Its Predisposing Factors—A Review. Physiologia. 2023; 3(2):145-172. https://doi.org/10.3390/physiologia3020012
Chicago/Turabian StyleSidhu, Ramandeep Singh, Sally A. Bound, and Nigel D. Swarts. 2023. "Internal Flesh Browning in Apple and Its Predisposing Factors—A Review" Physiologia 3, no. 2: 145-172. https://doi.org/10.3390/physiologia3020012