Multidisciplinary Review of Induction Stove Technology: Technological Advances, Societal Impacts, and Challenges for Its Widespread Use

Abstract

Induction stoves are increasingly recognized as the future of cooking technology due to their numerous benefits, including enhanced energy efficiency, improved safety, and precise cooking control. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the key technological advancements in induction stoves, while also examining the societal and health impacts that need to be addressed to support their widespread adoption. Induction stoves operate based on the principle of eddy currents induced in metal cookware, which generate heat directly within the pot, reducing cooking times and increasing energy efficiency compared with conventional gas and electric stoves. Moreover, induction stoves are considered an environmentally sustainable option, as they contribute to improvements in indoor air quality by reducing emissions associated with fuel combustion during cooking. However, ongoing research is essential to ensure the safe and effective use of this technology on a broader scale.

1. Introduction

In recent years, the development and adoption of energy-efficient technologies have gained significant attention across various sectors, including domestic appliances. Among these innovations, induction stove technology has emerged as a promising alternative to traditional gas and electric stoves, offering several advantages such as enhanced energy efficiency, improved safety, and precise cooking control [1,2,3,4,5,6,7]. Continuous advancements in design, materials, and energy conversion efficiency have positioned induction stoves as a viable solution for modern kitchens. These stoves operate by using coils located beneath a glass ceramic surface that generate a time-varying magnetic field. This field induces eddy currents in metal cookware, heating the pot directly from the bottom [8,9,10,11].

Remarkable advances in induction technology have been achieved, particularly in the development of more efficient power electronics inverters, such as the half-bridge series resonant (HBSR) [8,12,13,14] and the single-switch quasi-resonant (SSQR) [15,16,17,18]. These innovations enable more precise control over the frequency and intensity of the electromagnetic field, leading to improved energy efficiency and greater adaptability to different stove models and cooking conditions. Furthermore, new technologies have been incorporated to enhance the performance of induction stoves, making them smarter [19,20] and more accessible to vulnerable populations [21,22].

Beyond technological advancements, the social and environmental impacts of the widespread adoption of induction stoves are equally important. From an environmental perspective, induction stoves significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions and improve indoor air quality [1], which is particularly relevant in urban areas. Initiatives such as the Plan Frontera in Ecuador have aimed to implement these technologies to reduce dependence on fossil fuels and promote the use of cleaner energy sources. Similarly, Indonesia has launched an ambitious program to deploy induction stoves on a large scale, aiming to reduce the use of liquefied petroleum gas and encourage more sustainable cooking practices in millions of households [23,24]. In Costa Rica, a country renowned for its leadership in renewable energy, the adoption of induction stoves aligns perfectly with its national sustainability goals. However, transitioning to these stoves in communities that have historically relied on traditional cooking methods presents cultural and economic challenges that must be addressed to ensure the effective and equitable implementation of induction stoves [25,26,27,28,29,30].

Traditional stoves generate heat by burning liquid or gaseous fuels, a process that has been proven to increase indoor air pollutants [31]. In contrast, induction stoves reduce polluting emissions by using electromagnetic phenomena to generate heat, thereby lowering the risk of diseases associated with air pollution and significantly improving user health [32]. Luo et al. [33] explored the effects of air pollutants on the pertussis epidemic in China, showing that various air pollutants from combustion stoves have delayed effects on the occurrence of pertussis. Similarly, Aglan et al. [34] analyzed the influence of air pollution on adults with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), finding that exposure to indoor air pollutants, even at relatively low concentrations, worsens respiratory symptoms and increases the risk of COPD exacerbations. However, concerns have been raised regarding potential health effects associated with exposure to intermediate frequency electromagnetic fields (IF-EMF) generated during the operation of induction stoves. Several studies have examined the impact of IF-EMF on human health, focusing on potential long-term effects and establishing safety standards to minimize risks [7,35,36,37]. Although most studies indicate that IF-EMF exposure levels emitted by induction stoves are safe, continued research is essential to support the safe expansion of this technology without compromising users’ health.

Research on induction stoves has been somewhat fragmented, with studies primarily focusing on specific technological [38] or social [25] aspects. To date, a comprehensive review offering a multidisciplinary perspective on the challenges and opportunities associated with the widespread adoption of induction stoves has not been conducted. This article addresses this gap by providing a thorough review that combines a theoretical overview of the operating principles of induction stoves with an analysis of recent technological advances. Furthermore, it examines government efforts to promote and popularize this technology, assessing its benefits and the challenges that remain. The aim is to provide a comprehensive understanding that encompasses technical innovations, social impacts, and health considerations.

This article is structured as follows: Section 2 provides a theoretical introduction to the operation of induction stoves; Section 3 details the technological advances that have enhanced their performance; Section 4 analyzes the energy efficiency of induction stoves compared with traditional cooking methods; Section 5 discusses mass deployment programs for induction stoves, examining their successes and the remaining challenges; and Section 6 explores the potential health risks associated with the use of induction stoves. Finally, Section 7 presents conclusions, providing an overview and prospects for this technology.

2. Theoretical Background of Induction Stoves

Induction stoves operate based on the principle of energy dissipation in the form of heat, generated by the interaction of induced currents within a conductive material. This is in contrast to conventional stoves, where heat is produced by conducting a high direct current through a resistive element or by burning a fuel source [1,5,39,40,41,42]. The benefit of induction stoves lies in their ability to transfer energy directly to the cooking pot, resulting in more efficient cooking.

Figure 1, obtained by using software Altair Flux (https://www.altair.co.kr/flux/ (accessed on 6 September 2024)), illustrates the operating principle of induction stoves. The induction coil generates a high-frequency (20–50 kHz), time-varying magnetic field. When a suitable cooking vessel, typically made of iron or magnetic steel, is placed on the stove surface, this magnetic field induces electrical currents at the bottom of the pot. These currents, formally known as eddy currents, are described by the Faraday law as shown in (1):

$$\nabla \times \overrightarrow{E}=-{\displaystyle \frac{\partial \overrightarrow{B}}{\partial t}},$$

(1)

where $\overrightarrow{B}$ and $\overrightarrow{E}$ represent the magnetic flux density (expressed in T) and electric field intensity (expressed in volt per meter V/m), respectively. According to (1), the induced voltage (expressed in Volts) in a closed loop generates a current density $\overrightarrow{J}$ (expressed in Amperes per meter A/m) as follows:

$$\overrightarrow{J}={ \sigma }_r\overrightarrow{E},$$

(2)

$$\nabla \times \overrightarrow{{\displaystyle \frac{J}{{\sigma }_r}}}=-{\displaystyle \frac{\partial \overrightarrow{B}}{\partial t}},$$

(3)

where ${\sigma }_r$ is the conductivity in Siemens of the metal pot. The interaction between the induced current and the conductivity of the pot generates heat quickly and efficiently due to the Joule effect. To evaluate Joule heating (space expressed in Watts) at a specific location, the differential form of the Joule heating equation, as presented in (4), is employed:

$${\displaystyle \frac{dQ}{dV}}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}} \overrightarrow{J}\times {\overrightarrow{E}}^{*},$$

(4)

where ${\displaystyle \frac{dQ}{dV}}$ is the derivate of the heat per unit volume. By substituting Equation (2) into (4), the derivate of the heat per unit volume can be described as follows:

$${\displaystyle \frac{dQ}{dV}}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}\overrightarrow{J}\times {{\displaystyle \frac{\overrightarrow{J}}{{\sigma }_r}}}^{*},$$

(5)

Expression (6) is obtained using the property of vector algebra that indicates that the vectorial product of a vector by its conjugate is equal to the magnitude of this squared:

$${\displaystyle \frac{dQ}{dV}}={\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}}{\displaystyle \frac{J^2}{{\sigma }_r}}.$$

(6)

As eddy currents circulate through the metal material of the container, solving expression (3) as an eddy current problem, as demonstrated in [43,44], and substituting it into Equation (6), it is possible to determine the heat distribution at the bottom of the pot. This heat is then transferred to the food and liquids inside the pot, enabling rapid heating and precise temperature control. This leads to faster cooking times and lower energy consumption compared with conventional stoves [1,5,41,42]. Induction stoves transfer energy directly to the cooking pot with minimal heat loss to the surrounding environment, concentrating energy on the specific cooking area. The temperature of an induction stove can be precisely and rapidly controlled by adjusting both the frequency and amplitude of the generated magnetic field, allowing for rapid changes in heating power [4,45].

3. Recent Technological Developments in Induction Stoves

Induction stoves have seen significant advancements in recent years, particularly in hardware, leading to notable improvements in energy efficiency [14,15,18,46], heat distribution [44], and the use of novel materials [47]. Integrating these optimized advances has enhanced the overall performance of induction stoves, enabling precise control and greater ease of use for consumers.

A critical area of innovation has been the development and refinement of power converters, which play a key role in improving the efficiency of induction stoves. These converters convert the low-frequency AC voltage from the power grid into high-frequency AC voltage, which powers the induction coil to generate the electromagnetic field.

The typical power supply system in an induction stove comprises three stages, as shown in Figure 2: (i) a rectifier stage that converts the low-frequency AC voltage into DC voltage, (ii) a filter stage that eliminates noise from the power grid, and (iii) an inverter 146 stage that converts the DC voltage into a high-frequency AC voltage [15]. Early designs of these power supply systems were based on a half-bridge (HB) inverter composed of two switches, commonly a MOSFET or IGBT, a Flyback diode used to eliminate sudden voltage spikes across the load, and a resonant tank as a load, also known as a class D inverter, shown in Figure 3 [8,9,13,14]. HB inverters are known for their large power capacity but also for their complex circuits and higher costs. Koertzen et al. [8] proposed the half-bridge series resonant (HBSR) inverter, which proved to be well-suited for induction cooking systems. Subsequent innovations have focused on reducing costs and improving efficiency. For instance, Sarnago et al. [9] introduced a novel series resonant inverter topology that minimizes the costs of induction stoves. The proposed topology works with full-wave or half-wave rectification, and two Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT) relays have been added. It is integrated with a second winding to guarantee the isolation of the supply between the grounds of the different inverters. However, it causes power losses to increase by 30% compared with traditional HBSR converters. Then, Sarnago et al. [48] proposed a multi-output zero-voltage switching resonant inverter with a matrix structure that has allowed flexible control of multiple coils, significantly enhancing stove performance. Experimental tests were carried out that corroborated the converter efficiency, showing that it is possible to control the power of up to forty-eight coils.

It is important to note that, in addition to the development of HB inverter topologies, there has been a growing interest in innovative design methodologies that enable the precise adjustment of the parameters of these HB topologies. Sarnago et al. [26] introduced an analytical model for the proposed HBSR [9] to enhance control, design, and efficiency. This model was validated through the implementation of an experimental setup using calculated values. Results showed that the output power and energy loss values closely matched the theoretical predictions. As a result, the proposed expression can be used to improve both the design process and the operation of the converter. The authors also highlighted that, according to the model, conduction efficiency remains constant with respect to output power and is primarily dependent on the load, supply voltage, and conduction parameters of the switching devices.

On the other hand, Hsieh et al. [13] proposed a strategy for designing an HBSR inverter using rectified sinusoidal DC voltage. The model developed through this methodology is an equivalent circuit powered by a train of DC-voltage pulses. The authors demonstrated that this model allows for the accurate determination of the power output of induction stoves. To ensure the stability of the inverter, the damping ratio on the root locus plane was carefully controlled. To validate the proposed methodology, a 3 kW induction coil was designed and implemented in an induction stove. The experimental results showed a power factor ranging from 0.95 to 0.99, with a total harmonic distortion between 3.5 and 4.1%, within a power range from 300 W to 3 kW. However, despite these promising results, HBSR inverters face challenges for mass adoption due to their high cost, impact on the electrical grid, and overall complexity. Consequently, alternative designs have been developed that use fewer components and reduce costs [9,15].

Class E resonant inverters, illustrated in Figure 4, are among the most popular topologies used by researchers and manufacturers of induction stoves. A key characteristic of a class E inverter is the use of a single switch, commonly a MOSFET or IGBT, a Flyback diode to eliminate sudden voltage spikes across the load, and a resonant tank as a load, configurable in parallel or in series. For domestic induction cooking systems, an RLC series network is generally preferred over a parallel network to represent the induction load for analysis and design purposes.

Charoenwiangnuea et al. [46] carried out a time-domain simulation of a Class E inverter using a single capacitor and a resistor–inductor equivalent network to model the performance of domestic induction stoves in both series and parallel configurations. An experimental prototype was developed with output power levels of 200 W, 600 W, and 1200 W to validate the proposed circuit model. The experimental results indicated that the time-varying current and voltage waveforms were consistent with the simulated results for the series network when the output power was 200 W or 600 W, whereas the output voltage and current showed an error above 19% at 1200 W power. For the parallel network, the waveforms were compatible at output power levels of 600 W or 1200 W. These findings suggest that the proposed circuit model can effectively emulate the behavior of an induction stove, thereby facilitating the design of more efficient systems.

The single switch quasi-resonant (SSQR) inverter is the most widely used class E inverter topology in induction heating systems. SSQR inverters are preferred over HBSR in low-cost and low-power applications. However, SSQR inverters tend to be unstable, have lower efficiency, and offer a narrower soft switching range compared with HBSR inverters. The use of SSQR in induction stoves presents significant challenges due to the switching time being highly dependent on the electrical parameters of the load being heated. Therefore, it is essential to precisely determine the capacitance and inductance values to develop a robust and efficient system [18]. Ozturk et al. [15] proposed a simplified design methodology for SSQR inverters. The authors considered the DC source voltage, obtained by rectifying the AC voltage, the average input power, and the switching time as input variables, while the inductance, capacitance, and resistance values of the equivalent circuit were treated as output variables. Simulations and experimental circuits were used to verify the design methodology. The results demonstrated that the proposed method is reliable and can serve as a reference for new researchers in the design of SSQR inverters.

As previously mentioned, the SSQR inverters are simple and low cost. However, their efficiency has been shown to be lower than that of HBSR inverters [17]. To address this issue, research has been conducted to propose variations in the SSQR inverter design aimed at increasing energy efficiency. Sarnago et al. [17] proposed a quasi-resonant inverter based on a high-performance class E dual inverter. This proposed inverter can supply up to 3.6 kW of output power, thanks to its reconfigurable resonant tank, a feature not used in previous designs. An experimental setup was developed to demonstrate the feasibility of this topology. Subsequently, Sarnago et al. [16] proposed a novel quasi-resonant inverter topology that employs a single switch. The topology was experimentally evaluated using a large-scale dual-output inverter. The results demonstrated reliable operation, achieving smooth switching and allowing operation at power levels of up to 3600 W.

Typically, pulse frequency modulation (PFM) is used to control the output power of SSQR inverters in induction stoves. However, PFM often generates regular audible noise, which can be undesirable [49]. To mitigate this issue, Tomoyasu et al. [10] proposed a novel inverter prototype that uses pulse width modulation (PWM) to regulate output power. They presented the circuit diagram, along with the power control principles and relevant theoretical equations for the power stages. The experimental results demonstrated that the PWM-controlled inverter was capable of powering loads ranging from 0.3 kW to 3 kW, offering a viable alternative to PFM with reduced noise levels.

Furthermore, it was found that the efficiency of the induction stove power supply system can reach up to 90.9% using this topology, which is higher than that of most commercially available models. Despite its promising potential, further investigation is necessary to validate its performance under normal operating conditions. While variants of HBSR and SSQR inverters have been widely explored, other types of inverters, such as multi-frequency converters [50] and non-resonant converters [51], have also been studied. Salvi et al. [50] proposed a dual-frequency control resonant inverter (3S-DFRI). The operation of the 3S-DFRI was validated through simulations and the implementation of a prototype with an output power of 2 kW. Experimental and simulated results showed that it could achieve an efficiency of up to 96.11%.

On the other hand, non-resonant inverters are smaller in size and provide full control over the output power. Raeber et al. [51] conducted an experimental and simulated analysis of non-resonant inverters and found that half-bridge non-resonant inverters experience reduced output power. However, they also determined that using PSM control instead of PWM control for this topology increases efficiency due to reduced reverse-recovery and turn-on losses of the switches. The experimental results showed that an efficiency of up to 96.8% could be achieved within an input power range of 500 W to 1750 W. These findings indicate a promising future for non-resonant inverters. However, it remains unclear whether non-resonant inverters offer significant advantages over their resonant counterparts, as the effects on electromagnetic compatibility have yet to be thoroughly investigated.

As previously mentioned, commercial induction stove power systems typically feature a rectification stage followed by an inverter. However, significant efforts are being made to connect these two stages by employing a low-to-high frequency AC–AC converter. The development of an AC–AC converter, as illustrated in Figure 5, aims to optimize and simplify the electrical supply of induction stoves. Sarnago et al. [52] proposed a Class E direct AC–AC converter with multicycle modulation (MCM) that uses two switching devices. The authors designed and built a prototype using a silicon carbide (SiC) JFET as the switching device to demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed topology. The experimental results indicated that the optimal switching frequency should be 210 kHz, with output power increasing as the switching frequency decreases. Notably, this converter can deliver consistent output power across a wide range of switching frequencies. For instance, the implemented converter can provide an output power of 250 W within a switching frequency range of 45 kHz to 125 kHz. This capability is particularly valuable in commercial models that use different switching frequencies for each coil to avoid audible noise interference.

Charoenwiangnuea et al. [11] proposed another Class E direct AC–AC converter, featuring a single capacitor and an inductor. Theoretical calculations were developed to create a design methodology for this AC–AC converter topology. Subsequently, an experimental system was built to evaluate the viability of the prototype and corroborate the design methodology. The input power of the experimental system was 1.32 kW, and the results showed that the power factor was close to unity, with a total harmonic distortion of approximately 5.2%. Finally, the output power of the converter was measured at 1309.71 W, resulting in an efficiency of around 95%. Meanwhile, Chattopadhyay et al. [53] proposed a low-to-high-frequency AC–AC converter with PWM to achieve active power factor correction and maintain a regulated DC bus.

The induction coil is a vital component in induction stove technology, and, as such, significant advances have been made in its simulation and design. Modern coils are designed to provide uniform heat distribution across the cooking surface, ensuring that food cooks evenly [4,47,54]. Consequently, research has focused on improving coil characteristics to reduce hot spots and increase flexibility. Achieving these improvements requires a thorough analysis of the distribution and interaction of electromagnetic fields between the induction coil and the cooking pot. However, these interactions, governed by complex equations, are challenging to analyze using traditional analytical methods [54].

To address this challenge, Shuang et al. [54] developed a mathematical model that describes the electromagnetic behavior between the induction coil and the cooking vessel, facilitating simulation based on the finite element method (FEM). This simulation approach allows researchers to solve problems in induction stoves that are difficult to measure or verify experimentally. The simulations also allow the analysis of how various system component parameters affect energy efficiency. The results indicate that it is possible to enhance the uniformity of temperature distribution and increase energy efficiency by adjusting the number of windings of a single coil.

In practical systems, energy losses in each component of the induction stove must be considered to achieve optimal energy efficiency. However, experimental setups typically only measure the total input and output power, making it difficult to isolate losses in individual components. To overcome this, electromagnetic simulation models are used to evaluate energy losses in the internal components of the induction stoves. Liu et al. [44] developed a multidisciplinary methodology for energy analysis, comparing simulated results with an experimental setup designed to heat water to its boiling point. The proposed simulation calculates the energy distribution caused by eddy currents and simulates the heat transfer to the boiling water inside a pot. The simulation results indicated an energy efficiency of 88.2%, with experimental results showing an 6.3% error. Although this methodology provides valuable insights into the dynamics of induction cooking systems, further research is needed to extend these studies to multiple coils with different configurations and power levels.

Accurately detecting the presence, size, and location of cooking vessels on induction stoves in real time is essential for activating the appropriate cooking zones and maximizing energy efficiency. The accurate detection of cookware characteristics is vital due to the relationship between the parameters of the inverter circuit and induction loads. The most recent cookware detection and estimation systems proposed for induction stove characteristics are summarized in

Table 1. Recent load identification and detection systems of induction stoves.

Autor	Feed System	Obtained Parameter	Estimation Error	Material	Detection of Position
Züngör et al. [55] 2021	SSQR inverter	Equivalent circuit parameters	Req = 35% and Ieq = 5%	Silargan, iron and stainless steel	No
Ozturk et al. [18], 2022	SSQR inverter	Equivalent circuit parameters	Req = 22% and Ieq = 3%	Silargan, iron and stainless steel	No
Li et al. [56], 2022	HBSR inverter	Equivalent circuit parameters	Req = 4% and Ieq = 3%	Ferromagnetic cookware	Yes, just two positions accuracy 7.14%
Huang et al. [57], 2023	HBSR inverter	Equivalent circuit parameters	Zeq = 8.5%	Ferromagnetic and non-ferromagnetic cookware	No
Lucia et al. [58], 2019	HBSR inverter	Covered area	10%	--	Yes

.

Züngör et al. [55] introduced a novel theoretical model for load detection based on the analysis of quasi-resonant inverters used in induction stoves. The authors derived equations that determine the equivalent circuit characteristics, provided the values of the resonance capacitor and switching timings are known. These equations enable the calculation of the damping coefficient, resonance frequency, and damped resonance frequency, which are subsequently used to derive the equivalent circuit parameters, including the equivalent resistance and inductance. The proposed model was evaluated through circuit simulations, with results showing that the theoretical model could effectively estimate the load of an induction stove.

Subsequently, Ozturk et al. [18] implemented a microcontroller-based container detection model using the theoretical framework proposed by Züngör et al. [55]. In their approach, the coil is powered with a low current to generate a safe magnetic field, allowing for the estimation of the electrical parameters of the load. Initially, the equivalent circuit components are determined by measuring the voltage and current and then the timing of each switching mode is determined using digital measurement methods. The obtained measurements are then used to calculate the electrical parameters of the load using an analytical method, and finally, the optimal switching times to minimize losses are identified. The authors validated their method using an experimental setup, comparing the experimental and theoretical results for four vessels with different ferromagnetic properties, which demonstrated the reliability of the proposed method. However, it is important to note that various ferromagnetic utensils found in kitchens are not necessarily designed for cooking. It is crucial to ensure the safe operation of induction stoves by distinguishing these utensils from actual cooking loads. Therefore, understanding how the material, size, and position of kitchen utensils affect the electrical parameters of the equivalent circuit is necessary. Li et al. [56] proposed an online estimation method to detect cookware, determine material, and estimate its equivalent heating resistance.

Using the estimation method, the authors proposed an induction cooker based on an HBSR inverter and a digital signal processor (DSP). The HBSR comprises a half-bridge circuit with two insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs). The proposed method requires only the high-side IGBT turn-off transient current, the time in the first negative half cycle, and the maximum current of the HBSR to characterize the cookware. The authors found that discrepancy between the experimental and analytical values of the equivalent circuit obtained using this estimation method for different cookware was up to 7.14%. Thus, the method not only detects the presence of a utensil but also determines its suitability for use in the induction stove.

Traditional estimation methods traditionally require additional sensors to measure the coil supply current, potentially increasing costs. To address this issue, Huang et al. [57] proposed a sensorless load estimation method for induction cookers, reducing the computational load of the software used for vessel estimation. The method involves sampling the resonant capacitor voltage through peripheral circuits and a DSP to obtain the equivalent circuit values. The estimation errors for resistance and inductance were 8.4% and 9.1%, respectively. Nonetheless, other container detection methods have yet to be fully explored. Thus, it remains necessary to propose and investigate novel methods— whether electromagnetic, circuit-based, or otherwise—to validate and potentially improve the precision of the methods discussed in this section.

In terms of design, induction stoves have also evolved to adapt to changing consumer needs and preferences. Beyond the introduction of features such as Wi-Fi connectivity and voice control, these stoves have expanded their applicability, allowing for widespread use even in areas far from large urban population centers. Induction stoves offer numerous opportunities to improve the quality of life in remote rural regions and reduce air pollution caused by traditional wood-burning stoves. Nair et al. [22] proposed an induction stove, shown in Figure 6, that operates independently of the electrical grid, powered by solar energy. The proposed system comprises a solar panel, a battery, a DC–DC converter in boost mode, and a class E inverter. A PWM controller is used to control the power generated by the stove. The PWM controller detects the presence of the pot, and the power delivered by the coil in order to modify the gate signal of the electronic switch of the class E inverter. This type of solution not only addresses environmental concerns associated with conventional cooking methods but also offers a viable option for areas without access to the electrical grid.

Subsequently, Sillé et al. [21] proposed the installation of a low-cost microgrid in remote rural regions. The proposed microgrid requires two solar panels and a 1250 Wh battery with a DC voltage range of 350 V to 400 V. This microgrid is capable of powering a commercially available low-cost induction stove. The authors design a synchronous buck converter and a class E inverter to convert the stored DC energy into high-frequency AC power to operate the stove. The converter was selected to reduce costs and improve power stability. Experimental measurements demonstrated that the proposed microgrid could power an induction stove with up to 1 kW of power and a supply voltage ranging from 200 V to 400 V. Arjun et al. [20] proposed a cooking system designed for integration with the Internet of Things (IoT) platform. This system features an induction stove with a coil positioned beneath a ferromagnetic pan and a quasi-resonant converter. The system also includes a mechanism driven by a Brushless DC (BLDC) motor that allows the pan to move, mixing the ingredients. The speed of the BLDC motor is adjusted based on the pan temperature to prevent food from sticking. However, the proposed prototype is still in the early stages of development and requires further improvements in temperature control and energy efficiency.

On the other hand, the operation basis of induction stoves allows the development of other implements necessary in kitchens. Xia et al. [59] proposed an induction-heating rice cooker with three coils: the induction coil, the intermediate coil, and the transmission coil. This configuration allows for great adaptability in the device since it can be used not only as a rice cooker but also as a traditional induction stove. The results show that the energy efficiency between the induction coil and the transmission coil increases by adding the intermediate coil. The heating power of the simple stove is 2100 W, while that of the rice cooker is 1300 W. The experimental results showed that this device can achieve energy efficiency of up to 90% when powered by 220 VAC.

In summary, this section has outlined the hardware advancements that have made induction stoves highly efficient, precise, and versatile. Research has consistently shown that induction stoves enhance the cooking experience and energy efficiency in both residential and commercial settings.

4. Energy Efficiency and Performance of Induction Stoves

Induction stoves represent a modern and efficient alternative to traditional stove types, such as gas (LPG) and conventional electric stoves. The induction stoves offer superior energy efficiency and significant advantages in reducing environmental impact. While gas stoves remain the most popular choice among consumers, their use contributes to greenhouse gas emissions and indoor air pollution [1,60,61,62]. In contrast, an induction stove helps reduce gas emissions, improves indoor air quality, and lowers the carbon footprint associated with domestic cooking.

Table 2. Information on the energy and environmental impact of dishes cooked in induction stoves.

Autor	Food	Induction Stove Power (W)	Footprint	Efficiency
Aisyah et al. [3] 2021	Water	300, 500, 1000, 1400, and 1800	--	59.46% to 81.78%
Lin et al. [4], 2022	Water	1200	--	83.6%
Liu et al. [44], 2022	Water	1200	--	81.7%
Cimini et al. [5], 2017	Pasta	2000	0.67 kg CO2	65%
Sandesh et al. [6], 2020	Cocoa	1800	--	80%
Martínez et al. [42], 2016	Hard-boiled egg	1800	0.0005 kg CO2	66%
	Grilled chicken		0.0005 kg CO2	86%
	Milk		--	65%
	Boiled chochos		0.0006 kg CO2	60%
	Steamed fish		0.0006 kg CO2	65%
	Boiled broccoli		0.0008 kg CO2	65%

provides a comparison of energy efficiency and the amount of gas emissions when cooking different dishes using an induction stove.

Aisyah et al. [3] conducted a study on the energy efficiency of boiling water using several types of stoves: an induction unit, an electric unit, and a halogen unit. The input and output powers of each stove were measured to determine their thermal efficiency. The results showed that the induction stove 1800 W exhibited the highest efficiency, reaching 81.78% for 3.6 min of heating time, while the electric stove 300 W had the lowest efficiency of 32.43% for a heating time of 55.9 min. These findings clearly indicate that the induction stove is the most efficient, whereas the halogen and electric stoves require significantly more time to reach the water boiling temperature.

Lin et al. [4] employed a computational fluid dynamic (CFD) simulation to model the thermal behavior of a pot of boiling water using a single-coil induction stove. To validate the simulation results, the authors set up an experimental system consisting of a single-coil induction stove, a pot of water, a Keysight Technologies PA2201A power analyzer, and a HIOKI-LR8432 temperature analyzer. The simulation results show a heat transfer efficiency of 83.6%, with an error margin of less than 7% in the experimental data. However, some induction heating systems use multiple coils and time-varying power. To address these complexities, the authors proposed a multidisciplinary methodology for the thermal analysis of boiling water using an induction stove [44].

So far, studies have demonstrated the superior efficiency of induction stoves compared with conventional. However, these results have primarily focused on the task of heating water. To obtain a more accurate assessment of efficiency, it is crucial to evaluate these appliances across a variety of cooking scenarios. Cimini et al. [5] conducted a comprehensive evaluation of energy efficiency, carbon footprint, and operating costs with cooking pasta using liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) stoves, conventional electric stoves, and induction stoves. The methodology employed involved heating a container with 1.5 kg of water, with the lid closed to minimize evaporation. The induction stove control was set to its maximum to bring the water to the boiling point as quickly as possible. Once boiling, 14 g of cooking salt and 120 g of pasta were added, and the heat was adjusted to reach a temperature of around 98 °C. The results showed that the energy efficiency for cooking pasta using this methodology was 46 ± 3% for electric stoves, 65 ± 3% for induction, and 30 ± 4% for LPG stoves. Furthermore, the carbon footprint was reduced to 0.67 CO_2eq per kg of pasta cooked using an induction stove. Therefore, induction stoves highlight their potential as an eco-friendly solution for pasta preparation.

On the other hand, Sandesh et al. [6] compared the performance of induction and LPG stoves for the hydrolysis of cocoa pods to obtain biomass. The results showed that it can extract up to 80% of carbohydrates from the total sugar using the induction stove, compared with 57% extraction using an LPG stove. The authors concluded that induction heating improves biomass generation while reducing hydrolysis time.

Martínez et al. [42] conducted a study to compare the energy efficiency and cooking parameters of eight traditional Ecuadorian dishes using LPG stoves, conventional electric stoves, and induction stoves. The study monitored CO and CO₂ concentrations, temperature, and cooking time to evaluate and compare the performance of the different cooking methods. Additionally, this study examined the microbiological and physicochemical changes in food that could impact consumer perception. The results indicated that levels of CO and CO₂ were significantly lower in all the dishes studied when using electric and induction stoves compared with LPG stoves. In terms of energy efficiency, the study found that cooking time and energy consumption were both reduced when using the induction stove. It is important to highlight that the authors confirmed that the flavor of the dishes remained unchanged regardless of the cooking method. Additionally, a microbiological analysis revealed that no pathogens or contaminants were present in the cooked food, and vitamins A and C were retained in similar amounts across all cooking methods.

Considering the research presented, induction stoves emerge as a highly efficient alternative to conventional gas and electric stoves. They are particularly notable for their superior energy efficiency and significant environmental benefits, considerably reducing greenhouse gas emissions and improving indoor air quality in kitchens. However, further research is necessary to evaluate their efficiency across a wider variety of dishes in domestic settings.

5. Status and Socioeconomic Analysis of the Adoption and Integration of Induction Stoves

In addition to their energy efficiency and enhanced cooking performance, induction stoves have been shown to significantly reduce gas emissions [2,63,64], improving indoor air quality in homes. This benefit is particularly relevant in urban areas, where air pollution is a major concern. The increasing availability and diversification of induction stove models are facilitating their adoption in residential and commercial kitchens; however, widespread use has yet to be achieved. In this section, we will explore the current initiatives aimed at the mass adoption of induction stoves, the challenges encountered, and potential solutions, with a focus on the cases of Indonesia [23,24,63,64] and Ecuador [42,65,66,67].

Irsyad et al. [63] analyzed the feasibility of a mass adoption program for induction stoves in Indonesia as a strategy to reduce LPG subsidies. To carry out this analysis, both energy costs and the population perception technology transition were considered. A survey was conducted with 1006 participants, all of whom were connected to the electricity grid with varying capacities expressed in VA. The results indicated that for users with 900 VA of capacity who use 12 kg and 3 kg LPG cylinders, energy costs could be reduced by switching to induction cookers. For users with 450 VA of capacity, energy costs would be reduced for those currently using 12 kg LPG cylinders. Based on these findings, the authors concluded that transitioning from LPG stoves to induction cookers is economically viable since the savings obtained from the reduction of the subsidy given to LPG could be used to distribute free induction cookers to 450 VA and 900 VA households within three years.

Hakam et al. [24] expanded the economic evaluation of the induction stove rollout to include various scenarios. Their results showed that implementing induction stoves is the most cost-effective option without requiring an electrical grid upgrade. The authors estimated that low-consumption induction stoves, ranging between 300 W and 500 W, could generate monthly savings of USD 0.64 and USD 1.42 for low-income households.

In middle- and high-income households, the potential savings would increase to USD 3.04 per month per household. However, this study does not consider the cost of purchasing pots compatible with induction stoves. Consequently, numerous technical and social challenges still need to be addressed to achieve the widespread use of induction cookers. For instance, Pratiwi et al. [23] conducted research focused on analyzing the perception of Indonesian society regarding the transition from LPG to induction stoves. Data were collected from the social network Twitter (X) using the SNScrape module to capture public perceptions of the migration program. The authors classify the perception of X users in Indonesia into three categories: positive, negative, and neutral. Four algorithms were employed: Naïve Bayes classifier, logistic regression, support vector machine, and K-nearest neighbor to classify the opinions. The results showed that 50% of the X users expressed positive feelings towards the migration to induction stoves, while 26% were negative, and 24% were neutral. These findings suggest that there is no overwhelming support for adopting induction cookers among the Indonesian population. This is mainly because the economic and environmental benefits of induction stoves have not yet been widely disseminated, despite being well-documented. Therefore, it is critical to intensify efforts to promote the benefits of transitioning to induction stoves, particularly among the most vulnerable populations.

In the case of Ecuador, the National Efficient Cooking Program (PNEIEC) is being implemented with the goal of reducing energy consumption and improving the population quality of life. Naula et al. [67] developed a multi-criteria decision-making model for selecting the optimal type of stove. The model considers both qualitative and quantitative aspects, such as socio-environmental aspects, energy efficiency, and economic costs. The computational results showed that in Ecuadorian socio-environmental conditions, induction stoves are the best alternative. In addition, it has been demonstrated in [1,42,65] that introducing induction stoves would not significantly influence the parameters of the Ecuadorian electrical grid, remaining within the levels permitted by regulations. Martínez et al. [30] studied the potential energy demand and savings once the PNIEEC is implemented. The results revealed that 20 million GJ would reduce LPG demand, while greenhouse gas emissions would decrease by about 40.8 million Kg of CO₂ by 2032. However, the adoption of induction stoves in peri-urban and rural regions of Ecuador presents significant challenges, as LPG and firewood have traditionally been the primary cooking fuels due to their accessibility and low cost.

Gould et al. [66] conducted a study on fuel use in approximately 800 peri-urban and rural households. The results showed that households in peri-urban areas have had easy access to affordable LPG for over a decade, while around 50% of rural households rely on firewood as their primary fuel, especially in colder climates. Later, Arderius et al. [28] expanded this research to include both rural and urban areas by analyzing official surveys from 2015 to 2017. Their study identified the socioeconomic and sociodemographic factors that influence the acquisition of an induction stove. The results showed that single, indigenous, and low-income households are the least likely to switch to an induction stove. In addition, the study highlighted that families from the most disadvantaged groups tend to prefer firewood over other fuel alternatives. These results show that social barriers prevent the widespread use of induction stoves.

To address the high costs associated with purchasing stoves and compatible stoves, the government has proposed subsidies [30]. McRae et al. [68] investigated the economic feasibility of induction stove penetration in developing countries such as Colombia. The authors found that there are many problems with current tariffs and proposed a tariff reform that applies to virtually all industrialized and developing countries. The proposed tariff model provides households with incentives for the future electrification of energy services currently provided with fossil fuels. The authors found that, at current electricity and natural gas tariffs, the adoption of induction stoves would be optimal for less than 1% of households if cooktop prices exceed USD 200, whereas if the tariff proposal is adopted, migration to induction stoves would be optimal for 19.1 percent of households. However, even if induction stoves were free, only 16.7 percent of households would consider it optimal to switch to the more efficient technology if tariffs were not changed. That is, subsidizing or giving away induction stoves will not lead to their adoption if the costs of use are not efficient. However, the necessary infrastructure required to make these stoves usable has yet to be installed. As a result, public policies must be implemented to minimize access barriers to induction cooking technologies. Otherwise, the programs for the widespread use of this technology could increase poverty gaps.

6. Health Implications and Safety Concerns of Induction Stoves Use

Currently, there is growing concern about the impact of rising pollution on human health. Gas appliances, particularly stoves, are commonly found in homes and release a significant number of pollutants into indoor environments. Among the main pollutants emitted by these stoves due to combustion are carbon monoxide, formaldehyde, and nitrogen dioxide [69]. It has been shown that these pollutants significantly harm human health by increasing the risk of lung diseases such as childhood asthma [70], chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) [34], and whooping cough [33]. Stoves burning fuels such as wood, coal, kerosene, natural gas, and liquefied petroleum gas also emit methane [71] and benzene [31] directly into the air through leaks and incomplete combustion [71]. Special attention should be paid to benzene as one of the most dangerous polluting gases, as it is considered a human carcinogen [31]. It is important to mention that the pollutants generated by stoves are emitted in spaces where people spend a lot of time. The results presented in the research shown above highlight the importance of improving indoor air quality and human exposure; therefore, it is essential to adopt and promote novel cooking fuels [72]. In this way, induction stoves are shown as an option with great prospects to reduce the dependence on fuels and thus reduce the emission of these pollutants that affect human health [72]. Yangka et al. [32] conducted a study that quantified the influence of the expansion of the use of induction stoves in Bhutan on the reduction of air pollutants. The authors developed a model under the MARKARL framework to determine the reductions of pollutants during a period from 2005 to 2040 by changing cooking fuel. The results showed that with the current policies and the rate of adoption of induction stoves, the emission levels of carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide will be reduced by 17%, 12%, and 8% respectively. On the other hand, Pradhan et al. [40] made a projection of the reduction of pollutants in the period from 2010 to 2050 in Nepal, by increasing the penetration of stoves that use electricity or biogas as fuel instead of petroleum-derived gases. The model developed by the authors is based on the long-term bottom-up energy system methodology using the AIM/Enduser model. Four scenarios were modeled: one representing emissions with no change in fuel usage, and three others considering low, medium, and high levels of electric stove adoption, respectively. The results showed that carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide emissions would be reduced by 33.9%, 16%, and 35.7%, respectively, in the low penetration scenario, while for the medium penetration scenario, they would be reduced by 51.4%, 24.4%, and 54.2%, respectively. Finally, in the scenario of a higher penetration of induction stoves, carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide emissions would be reduced by 76.5%, 56.6%, and 78.7%.

Concerns have been raised regarding the potential health risks associated with the intermediate frequency electromagnetic fields (IF-EMF) generated by induction stoves. The World Health Organization (WHO) has indicated that there is not yet sufficient scientific evidence to definitively determine the risks posed by IF-EMF. The value of the magnetic flux density generated by induction cookers at 30 cm from the cooking zone was found to be 3.864 µT on average, reaching up to 21.44 µT [73]. However, the exposure values given by the ICNIRP and IEC 62233 standards, 27.0 µT in bands from 3 kHz to 10 MHz, were not exceeded. However, special attention has been given to studying the effects of IF-EMF in pregnant women [36,37,40,74] and individuals with implanted medical devices [7,35,73].

Nishimura et al. [74] conducted a study in which young male and female mice were exposed to magnetic fields ranging from 10 to 60 kHz. The results showed that the reproductive capacity of both female and male mice was not affected. In addition, the study examined the development of the fetuses of pregnant female mice exposed to IF-EMF, finding no changes, malformations, or reductions in gestation time.

Tokinobu et al. [37] extended the study to pregnant women exposed to IF-EMF generated by induction stoves, analyzing a sample of 1565 Japanese mothers of single births. The results showed that there is insufficient evidence to link IF-EMF exposure to preterm birth, low birth weight, and small size for gestational age. These findings were further supported by a larger study conducted by Sato et al. [36].

On the other hand, Pan et al. [72] conducted a similar study that included 10,324 women who gave birth between 2015 and 2018 in the Guangxi region of China. Contrary to the findings of the studies mentioned earlier, the authors discovered that using induction stoves could be associated with an increased risk of premature birth and low birth weight. This discrepancy highlights the significant challenges in conducting epidemiological studies on the relationship between newborn health issues and exposure to EMF-IF.

In response to these challenges, Kitajima et al. [73] proposed a model to estimate the exposure of pregnant women to IF-FEM, which accounts for various population groups. The results of the model were experimentally contrasted and indicated that factors such as the distance from the center of the stove, the power level, and the diameter of the cooking utensil are critical determinants of IF-FEM exposure. These models provide a valuable framework for conducting research that could lead to a more unified understanding of the impact of IF-EMF on human health, considering different influencing factors.

In conclusion, while induction stoves are generally considered efficient and safe for most people, appropriate precautions should be taken, especially for those with specific medical conditions or implanted medical devices, due to the lack of conclusive scientific evidence. Continued research and monitoring are critical to better understand the potential health effects associated with induction stoves and to ensure their safe and responsible use.

7. Overview and Outlook

Significant efforts have been made to improve and disseminate induction stoves, as they represent a major advancement in cooking technologies. Induction stoves offer notable benefits in terms of energy efficiency, safety, and convenience, which has led to their increasing adoption in both residential and commercial settings. The aim of this paper has been to provide a comprehensive overview of induction stoves by examining the extensive work conducted by researchers and academics to improve and evaluate their performance, highlighting their technical aspects, efficiency, social impact, and health considerations. The research presented in this article is intended to improve the reader’s perception of induction stoves and promote an informed discussion on the role of these devices in the modern kitchen.

A wide variety of technologies that improve the energy performance of induction stoves have been presented. Despite these advancements, the widespread adoption of induction stoves is still in progress, leaving a vast landscape for further research. Several technical challenges remain, such as the need to simplify the power supply system for induction coils to reduce costs without compromising efficiency. Various power supply systems, including HBSR, SSQR inverters, and AC–AC converters, have been proposed. However, there is a need for a study that establishes selection criteria based on the user needs for each of these technologies. Additionally, there is considerable interest in developing more efficient pot-detection methods that can distinguish between dissimilar materials and cookware shapes, thereby enhancing user safety. However, it is important to remember that further experimental configurations are needed in order to evaluate the performance of induction stoves with different cookware materials and designs. The energy efficiency of induction stoves has been determined to be over 60%. This energy efficiency is higher than that found in stoves that use other types of fuel. However, a more detailed analysis of energy loss at the component level in induction stoves, rather than input–output measurements, is needed in order to detect other elements that need to be optimized beyond inverters.

Beyond the technical aspects, this article has also addressed the socioeconomic challenges associated with the adoption of induction stoves. Despite significant efforts to popularize these appliances, two major barriers have been identified. The first is the limited access to induction stoves among vulnerable populations due to prohibitive costs and difficulties in accessing the electrical grid. To address this, considerable efforts have been directed towards designing low-cost induction stoves with alternative power supplies that do not rely on the electrical grid, making them suitable for installation in remote areas. However, these prototypes are still under development, and further research is needed to optimize their efficiency.

The second barrier is the lack of implementation of public policies that could improve public perception of induction stoves. Therefore, articles like this one are crucial in bringing to the forefront the discussion of the advantages and potential of this technology. It is also essential to mention that potential health concerns, especially related to exposure to electromagnetic fields, should not be overlooked. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct long-term studies on the health incidents that users may experience due to exposure to electromagnetic fields, which will allow users to make more informed decisions regarding the implementation of induction stoves.

In summary, there is a wide margin for improvement in the development and implementation of high-efficiency induction stoves accessible to all populations. This article aims to inspire new lines of research, both technological and social, to further enhance the efficiency and accessibility of induction stoves. The massive use of these stoves has the potential to significantly reduce energy consumption and costs while also lowering the emission of pollutants that affect the environment. Additionally, this article highlights the need to establish public policies that promote the adoption of induction stoves in vulnerable populations and encourage the development of more efficient systems.