Characterization of Commercial and Custom-Made Printing Filament Materials for Computed Tomography Imaging of Radiological Phantoms
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Filament Fabrication
2.2. Cubes and Cylindrical Samples
2.3. Computed Tomography (CT) Scans of Twenty-Nine 3D Printed and Melted Samples
2.4. Hounsfield Units Measurements
3. Results
3.1. Measured Hounsfield Units
3.2. Adipose Tissue Mimicking Materials
3.3. Bone Tissue Mimicking Materials
3.4. Soft Tissue Mimicking Materials
3.5. Breast Tissue Mimicking Materials
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
PETG-HD | PETG-C | PLA-E | PLA-CC | |||||
kV | printed | melted | printed | melted | printed | melted | printed | melted |
80 | +93 ± 3 | +163 ± 3 | −37 ± 3 | +156 ± 39 | +127 ± 2 | +181 ± 3 | +115 ± 3 | +206 ± 2 |
100 | +104 ± 2 | +175 ± 2 | −29 ± 4 | +159 ± 31 | +133 ± 1 | +188 ± 4 | +118 ± 4 | +207 ± 2 |
120 | +106 ± 2 | +181 ± 3 | −29 ± 3 | +158 ± 2 | +138 ± 1 | +192 ± 2 | +119 ± 4 | +210 ± 2 |
PLA-C | PLA-W | PLA-WC | PLA-G | |||||
kV | printed | melted | printed | melted | printed | melted | printed | melted |
80 | +20 ± 3 | +171 ± 2 | −35 ± 1 | +165 ± 3 | −123 ± 10 | +82 ± 5 | +360 ± 1 | +422 ± 5 |
100 | +23 ± 2 | +178 ± 1 | −32 ± 1 | +170 ± 3 | −124 ± 13 | +88 ± 6 | +320 ± 2 | +378 ± 5 |
120 | +25 ± 1 | +183 ± 2 | −31 ± 1 | +176 ± 6 | −124 ± 12 | +93 ± 5 | +290 ± 2 | +353 ± 4 |
PLA-XT | ABS-CE | ABS-E | ABS-G | |||||
kV | printed | melted | printed | melted | printed | melted | printed | melted |
80 | +2 ± 4 | +108 ± 5 | +55 ± 3 | +315 ± 3 | −117 ± 2 | −51 ± 4 | −344 ± 6 | +83 ± 6 |
100 | +12 ± 5 | +121 ± 4 | +4 ± 3 | +248 ± 3 | −101 ± 1 | −33 ± 3 | −367 ± 5 | +57 ± 7 |
120 | +16 ± 6 | +128 ± 5 | -25 ± 3 | +212 ± 3 | −89 ± 2 | −20 ± 4 | −389 ± 8 | +46 ± 6 |
ABS-S | ABS-C | TPC-F | BVOH | |||||
kV | printed | melted | Printed | melted | printed | melted | printed | melted |
80 | −397 ± 37 | −27 ± 3 | −55 ± 2 | −67 ± 12 | −86 ± 2 | 11 ± 30 | −14 ± 6 | −42 ± 24 |
100 | −419 ± 35 | −30 ± 3 | −40 ± 4 | −51 ± 12 | −75 ± 3 | 17 ± 32 | −1 ± 6 | −48 ± 25 |
120 | −442 ± 38 | −32 ± 2 | −36 ± 4 | −41 ± 12 | −70 ± 4 | 28 ± 31 | 1 ± 5 | −43 ± 24 |
TPU-P | ASA-A | HIPS-E | PEG-PP | |||||
kV | printed | melted | Printed | melted | printed | melted | printed | melted |
80 | −88 ± 8 | +81 ± 9 | −9 ± 1 | +43 ± 8 | −154 ± 4 | −58 ± 1 | −410 ± 4 | −157 ± 6 |
100 | −91 ± 7 | +90 ± 9 | 0 ± 2 | +61 ± 7 | −138 ± 3 | −42 ± 2 | −422 ± 4 | −186 ± 6 |
120 | −86 ± 7 | +96 ± 10 | +3 ± 1 | +65 ± 8 | −132 ± 2 | −32 ± 2 | −435 ± 4 | −201 ± 7 |
PLA-SSB | ABS-CSH | ABS-SB10 | ABS-SB20 | |||||
kV | printed | melted | printed | melted | printed | melted | printed | melted |
80 | +3065 ± 4 | +3071 ± 0.1 | +3059 ± 6 | +2668 ± 52 | +2117 ± 10 | +2748 ± 38 | +2893 ± 5 | +3070 ± 1 |
100 | +2902 ± 34 | +3069 ± 4 | +2670 ± 28 | +2232 ± 57 | +1614 ± 6 | +2171 ± 30 | +2253 ± 5 | +2985 ± 16 |
120 | +2536 ± 8 | +3042 ± 15 | +2208 ± 46 | +1951 ± 52 | +1272 ± 5 | +1800 ± 28 | +1798 ± 8 | +2612 ± 30 |
PLA-S | ||||||||
kV | printed | melted | ||||||
80 | +832 ± 13 | +1360 ± 14 | ||||||
100 | +664 ± 12 | +1151 ± 12 | ||||||
120 | +563 ± 11 | +1030 ± 2 |
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No. | Material | Name | Material Binder/Material Filler |
---|---|---|---|
1 | ABS-CSH | ABS/Cesium Sulfate Hydrate | 80% ABS/20% Cesium Sulfate Hydrate (Roth) |
2 | ABS-CE | ABS/Cement | 80% ABS/20% Cement (Isomat white 50.5) |
3 | ABS-S | ABS/Silica gel | 80% ABS/20% Silica Gel (Valerus) |
4 | ABS-SB20 | ABS/Barium Sulfate | 80% ABS/20% Barium Sulfate (Danhson) |
5 | ABS-SB10 | ABS/Barium Sulfate | 90% ABS/10% Barium Sulfate (Danhson) |
6 | ABS-G | ABS/Gypsum | 80% ABS/20% Gypsum (Knauf Gipsopiia) |
7 | PLA-SSB | Stonefil/Barium Sulfate | 90% Stonefil/10% Barium Sulfate (Danhson) |
8 | PETG-HD | HD glass (Formfutura, Nijmegen, The Netherlands) | NA |
9 | PEG-PP | Pegasus PP (Formfutura, The Netherlands) | NA |
10 | TPC-F | Flexifil (Formfutura, The Netherlands) | NA |
11 | PETG-C | Carbonfil (Formfutura, The Netherlands) | 85% PETG/15% Carbon fibers |
12 | PLA-XT | XT-CF20 (Colorfabb, Belfeld, The Netherlands) | NA |
13 | ASA-A | ApolloX (Formfutura, The Netherlands) | NA |
14 | ABS-E | Easyfil ABS (Formfutura, The Netherlands) | NA |
15 | HIPS-E | Easyfil Hips (Formfutura, The Netherlands) | NA |
16 | TPU-P | Python flex (Formfutura, The Netherlands) | NA |
17 | PLA-C | Easycork (Formfutura, The Netherlands) | 70%PLA/30% Cork |
18 | PLA-E | Easyfil PLA (Formfutura, The Netherlands) | NA |
19 | PLA-S | Stonefil (Formfutura, The Netherlands) | 50% PLA/50% Stone |
20 | BVOH | BVOH (Formfutura, The Netherlands) | NA |
21 | PLA-W | Easywood (Formfutura, The Netherlands) | 60% PLA/40% Wood |
22 | PLA-CC | Corkfill (Colorfabb, The Netherlands) | NA |
23 | PLA-WC | Woodfill (Colorfabb, The Netherlands) | NA |
24 | ABS-C | Conductive ABS (SainSmart, Lenexa, KS, USA) | NA |
25 | PLA-MC | Metalfil copper (Formfutura, The Netherlands) | 20% PLA/80% Copper |
26 | REFL | Reflect-o-Lay (Lay Filaments, Cologne, Germany) | Reflective particles |
27 | PLA-I | Iron-filled PLA (Protopasta, Vancouver, WA, USA) | 55% PLA/45%Iron |
28 | PLA-ST | Steelfill (Colorfabb, The Netherlands) | NA |
29 | PLA-G | Glowfill (Colorfabb, The Netherlands) | PLA/PHA (Phosphorescent pigment) |
Material | PT (°C) | PS (mm/s) | FT (°C) | Material | PT (°C) | PS (mm/s) | FT (°C) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ABS-CSH | 240 | 20 | 240 | TPU-P | 230 | 10 | 200 |
ABS-CE | 240 | 20 | 240 | PLA-C | 230 | 40 | 220 |
ABS-S | 240 | 15 | 240 | PLA | 180 | 40 | 180 |
ABS-SB20 | 240 | 20 | 240 | PLA-S | 200 | 40 | 190 |
ABS-SB10 | 240 | 20 | 240 | BVOH | 220 | 40 | 200 |
ABS-G | 240 | 20 | 240 | PLA-W | 220 | 40 | 210 |
PLA-SSB | 200 | 15 | 190 | PLA-CC | 200 | 20 | 170 |
PETG-HD | 240 | 40 | 210 | PLA-WC | 200 | 20 | 180 |
PEG-PP | 230 | 8 | 210 | ABS-C | 200 | 20 | 240 |
TPC-F | 230 | 10 | 210 | PLA-MC | 210–230 | 15 | 180 |
PETG-C | 230 | 40 | 210 | REFL | 230 | 40 | 200 |
PLA-XT | 250 | 15 | 230 | PLA-I | 200 | 40 | 200 |
ASA-A | 240 | 40 | 220 | PLA-ST | 200 | 20 | 180 |
ABS-E | 200 | 40 | 210 | PLA-G | 200 | 20 | 180 |
HIPS-E | 230 | 40 | 220 |
Material | Phantom Application | HU Values, at 120 kV |
---|---|---|
ABS-SB10 | Cortical bone | +1272 ± 5 HU (printed) |
ABS-CE | 50/50 glandular/adipose tissue Bone tissue | −25 ± 3 HU (printed) +212 ± 3 HU (melted) |
PLA-S | Dense bone tissue | +563 ± 11 HU (printed) +1030 ± 2 HU (melted) |
PLA-E | Tumor tissue Bone tissue | +138 ± 1 HU (printed) +192 ± 2 HU (melted) |
PLA-G | Bone tissue | +290 ± 2 HU (printed) +353 ± 4 HU (melted) |
PETG-C | 50/50 glandular/adipose tissue Bone tissue | −29 ± 3 HU (printed) +158 ± 2 HU (melted) |
PETG-HD | Tumor tissue | +106 ± 2 HU (printed) +181 ± 3 (melted) |
PLA-W | 50/50 glandular/adipose tissue Bone tissue | −31 ± 1 HU (printed) +176 ± 6 HU (melted) |
ABS-CSH | Bone tissue | +2208 ± 46 HU (printed) +1951 ± 52 HU (melted) |
TPU-P | Adipose tissue Tumor tissue | −86 ± 7 HU (printed) +96 ± 10 HU (melted) |
PLA-WC | Adipose tissue Tumor tissue | −124 ± 12 HU (printed) +93 ± 5 HU (melted) |
ABS-G | Soft tissue, glandular, and tumor tissues | +46 ± 6 HU (melted) |
PLA-XT | Soft tissue (glandular tissue) Bone tissue | +16 ± 6 HU (printed) +128 ± 5 HU (melted) |
PLA-CC | Tumor tissue Bone tissue | +119 ± 4 HU (printed) +210 ± 2 HU (melted) |
PLA-C | Soft tissue, glandular tissue Bone Tissue | +25 ± 1 HU (printed) +183 ± 2 HU (melted) |
ASA-A | Soft tissue, glandular tissue Tumor tissue | +3 ± 1 HU (printed) +65 ± 8 HU (melted) |
HIPS-E | Adipose tissue 50/50 glandular/adipose tissue | −132 ± 2 HU (printed) −32 ± 2 HU (melted) |
BVOH | Adipose tissue | −43 ± 24 HU (melted) |
PLA-SSB | Bone tissue | +2536 ± 8 HU (printed) +3042 ± 15 HU (melted) |
ABS-E | Adipose tissue 50/50 glandular/adipose tissue | −89 ± 2 HU (printed) −20 ± 4 HU (melted) |
ABS-C | 50/50 glandular/adipose tissue Adipose tissue | −36 ± 4 HU (printed) −41 ± 12 HU (melted) |
TPC-F | Adipose tissue Soft tissue, glandular tissue | −70 ± 4 HU (printed) +28 ± 31 HU (melted) |
ABS-S | 50/50 glandular/adipose tissue | −32 ± 2 HU (melted) |
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© 2024 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Okkalidis, F.; Chatzigeorgiou, C.; Okkalidis, N.; Dukov, N.; Milev, M.; Bliznakov, Z.; Mettivier, G.; Russo, P.; Bliznakova, K. Characterization of Commercial and Custom-Made Printing Filament Materials for Computed Tomography Imaging of Radiological Phantoms. Technologies 2024, 12, 139. https://doi.org/10.3390/technologies12080139
Okkalidis F, Chatzigeorgiou C, Okkalidis N, Dukov N, Milev M, Bliznakov Z, Mettivier G, Russo P, Bliznakova K. Characterization of Commercial and Custom-Made Printing Filament Materials for Computed Tomography Imaging of Radiological Phantoms. Technologies. 2024; 12(8):139. https://doi.org/10.3390/technologies12080139
Chicago/Turabian StyleOkkalidis, Filippos, Chrysoula Chatzigeorgiou, Nikiforos Okkalidis, Nikolay Dukov, Minko Milev, Zhivko Bliznakov, Giovanni Mettivier, Paolo Russo, and Kristina Bliznakova. 2024. "Characterization of Commercial and Custom-Made Printing Filament Materials for Computed Tomography Imaging of Radiological Phantoms" Technologies 12, no. 8: 139. https://doi.org/10.3390/technologies12080139